Objects gree. Dynamics of methods and priorities of state regulation of the economy Scientific basis for the definition and dynamism of GR

GRE objects are areas, industries, regions, as well as situations, phenomena and conditions of the socio-economic life of the country where difficulties have arisen or may arise, problems that cannot be resolved automatically or can be resolved in the distant future, while the removal of these problems is urgently necessary for the normal functioning of the economy and maintaining social stability.

Main objects of the State Expedition - This:

• economic cycle;
• sectoral, industrial and regional structure of the economy;
• conditions for capital accumulation;
• employment;
• money turnover;
• payment balance;
• prices;
• R&D;
• competition conditions;
• social relations, including relations between employers and employees, as well as social security;
• training and retraining of personnel;
• environment;
• foreign economic relations.

Obviously, the objects listed are of a completely different nature; they cover macroeconomic processes - the business cycle, capital accumulation nationwide, individual industries, territorial complexes and even relations between entities - competition conditions, relations between trade unions and business associations, and between government regulatory bodies. Let's look at the most important of them.

The essence of state countercyclical policy, or regulation of economic conditions, is to stimulate demand for goods and services, capital investment and employment during crises and depressions. To achieve this, private capital is provided with additional financial incentives and government spending and investment are increased. In conditions of a long and rapid growth in the country's economy, dangerous phenomena may arise - the resorption of inventories, an increase in imports and a deterioration in the balance of payments, an excess of demand for labor over supply and hence unreasonable growth wages and prices. In such a situation, the task of the GRE is to slow down the growth of demand and capital investment in production in order to, if possible, reduce the overproduction of goods and the overaccumulation of capital and, thus, reduce the depth and duration of a possible decline in production, investment and employment in the future.

GRE in the field of sectoral and territorial structure is also carried out with the help of financial incentives and government investments, which provide preferential conditions to certain sectors and regions. In some cases, support is provided to industries and territorial units that are in a state of protracted crisis; in others, the development of new industries and types of production is encouraged - carriers of scientific and technological progress, designed to lead to progressive structural changes within industries, between industries and in the entire national economy as a whole, to increase its efficiency and competitiveness. At the same time, measures can be taken to slow down excessive concentration of production.

The most important object of GRE is capital accumulation. Production, appropriation and capitalization of profits always serve as the main goal economic activity in a market economy, therefore, the GEP for encouraging accumulation primarily corresponds to the economic interests of economic entities. At the same time, state regulation of accumulation indirectly serves other GRE objects. By creating additional incentives and opportunities at different times for all investors or individual groups of them in industries and territories, regulatory authorities influence the economic cycle and structure.

Employment regulation is the maintenance of a normal relationship between demand and supply of labor from the point of view of a market economy. This ratio should satisfy the economy’s need for qualified and disciplined workers, whose wages serve as sufficient motivation for them to work. However, the relationship between supply and demand should not lead to excessive wage growth, which could negatively affect national competitiveness. A sharp decline in employment is also undesirable; it leads to an increase in the army of the unemployed, a decrease in consumer demand, tax revenues, an increase in costs for benefits and, most importantly, dangerous social consequences.

Monetary circulation is a constant object of attention of government regulatory bodies. The main focus of monetary regulation is the fight against inflation, which poses a serious threat to the economy. Regulation of money circulation indirectly affects other objects - conditions of accumulation, prices, social relations.

The state of the balance of payments is an objective indicator of the economic health of the country. In all countries with a market economy, the state constantly carries out operational and strategic regulation of the balance of payments by influencing exports and imports, capital flows, increases and decreases in national currencies, trade and contractual policies and participation in international economic integration.

Another of the main objects of regulation is prices. The dynamics and structure of prices reflect the state of the economy. At the same time, prices themselves greatly influence the structure of the economy, investment conditions, the stability of the national currency, and the social atmosphere.

State regulatory authorities seek to influence other GRE objects, for example, to interest private firms in the development of scientific research and the implementation of their results, in the export of goods, capital and accumulated knowledge and experience. Laws on compliance with competition rules, social protection, security are being studied and improved environment.

GRE objects vary depending on the level of tasks they solve. These are the following hierarchical levels: firm level; region; industries; economic sectors (industry, agriculture, services); economy as a whole (business cycle, money circulation, R&D, prices); global (social relations, ecology); supranational (economic and political relations with foreign countries, integration processes).

It's unthinkable. In discussions and disputes between supporters of various economic schools, the need for GRE. There are different approaches and views regarding the scale, forms and intensity of government intervention in the economy

No one has ever relieved the state of responsibility for the economic situation of the country. Everyone agrees that the “invisible hand” of the market must be complemented by the visible hand of the state, its regulation economic and social processes So what does GRE represent in society?

But first, let's figure out what the word literally means - regulation(from Latin regulo - arrange, put in order; norm, rule).

In S. Ozhegov’s Russian language dictionary, the word “regulate” is explained as follows: to direct the development, movement of something with spruce put in order, into the system. For example, regulate traffic, regulate the labor market. Economic regulation is carried out within the framework of economic legislation through system mu norms and rules established by him.

As for the GRE subjects, they are the ones who implement the state economic policy and are the main executors of the economic interests of society.

Subjects are supranational, national, central or federal, regional, municipal or communal (local) authorities.

The executors of the economic interests of society - the subjects of the GRE - are the bodies of the three branches of government, built on a hierarchical principle, as well as the Central Bank. Equally important in understanding the mechanism GRE have questions: 1) about goals and principles; ) forms and methods, as well as regulatory instruments. As for the second part of the problems, they will be discussed in detail in the third chapter of the manual.

So, what are the goals and principles of GRE? The main goal of the state in this case is expressed in defining macroeconomic objectives. From economic development the country as a whole depends on the well-being of the people, the fate of the nation, and the fate of the state itself. In addition to purely economic problems, any society also faces social samples l em. As well as regional problems that arise under the influence of historical, national, demographic and other non-market factors. To solve them, government intervention and regional policy are also required.

In a word, economic goals There are quite a few, but we will highlight the main ones:

1. Economic growth. It is desirable to ensure the production of goods and services in greater quantities and best quality, and also produce in a shorter time and at the lowest cost.

Target settings are implemented based on the use of a number of specific principles of state regulation of the economy. There will be much more of them than the economic goals themselves. We list them without classifying them in any particular order or according to any criteria:

Regulation of the economy requires compliance with the principle “don’t interfere with the market”: follow the “rules of the game”;

Ensuring economic freedom and efficiency of business activities;

Development of a system of priorities in the implementation of assigned tasks;

Social orientation of economic regulation;

Ultimately, the mechanism for regulating the economy should be aimed at orienting macroeconomic development in the direction of any envisaged option along the path of deepening economic reforms and achieving a higher level and quality of life.

Limits of sufficient motivation for entrepreneurial activity;

Social boundaries of taxation of employees and the middle class;

For the first time, the basic ideas of the classical school were most fully substantiated by A. Smith in his “Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). According to his interpretation, the market system is capable of self-regulation, which is based on the “invisible hand” - personal interest based on private property and associated with the desire to make a profit. Personal interest acts as the main motivating force of economic development. One of the central ideas of the teachings of A. Smith was the idea that the economy would function more efficiently if its regulation by the state was excluded.

The best option for the state is to adhere to the laisser faire policy (fr. expression tion: let everyone goes their own way m- non-interference of the state. The English version of this expression: let it be - P Ust everything goes as it goes. Since the main regulator of the economy, according to A. Smith, is the market, therefore, it (the market) should be given complete freedom.

The classical direction dominated for quite a long time, until the crisis of 1929-1933. many of its provisions were not questioned. Representatives of this direction believed that the mechanism of market competition automatically ensures equality of supply and demand and any long-term disruption of this balance and deep economic crises are excluded. This was justified by the fact that in market conditions prices, wages, and interest rates are quite flexible and quickly and change under the influence of supply and demand, adapting to the new market situation.

The priority role of monetarization in the development and implementation monetary policies over the past decades in Western countries have led to a reduction in government involvement in the banking and credit sector. In almost all Western countries the primary responsibility for monetary The policy is carried out by the Central Bank, which seeks to influence macroeconomic processes using more flexible (indirect) methods:

Regulating the amount of money in circulation;

Regulation of bank reserves

Regulation of the amount of loans and credits provided to commercial banks;

Regulation of interest rates, etc.

The essence of monetarism can be overhang t to two fundamental theses:

1. Money plays a major role in macroeconomics.

The Central Bank can influence the money supply, i.e. on the amount of money in circulation (growth of no more than 3-5% per year).

Monetarist the approach is that markets are sufficiently competitive and that the system of market competition provides a high degree of macroeconomic stability. The ideological roots of monetarism go back to classical economic theory. Coin rists, like representatives of the classical school, they are ardent supporters of the free market.

The market system, if not subject to government intervention, they believe, provides significant macroeconomic stability. Public administration is considered bureaucratic, ineffective and even harmful to individual initiative; it suppresses human freedom. The public sector, in their opinion, should be as small as possible. So the views

1. 
   The objective need for state regulation of the economy and its essence.
2. 
   The role of the state in the formation and development of a market economy.
3. 
   Objects and subjects of the State Expedition
4. 
   

1. The objective need for GRE and its essence.

Modern economics represents a synthesis of the market mechanism and elements of government regulation.

The forms of activity and the volume of state activity in the economic sphere change with the development of society, in particular with the complication of economic relations. In economic concepts, a large place has always been given to the study of the economic role of the state and its functions in the economy.

^ State regulation in a market economy - purposeful influence of the state on micro- and macroeconomic processes of economic development in order to maintain its stability or change in the direction desired by society. In the system of government regulation measures, there are various sides - practical and scientific. Practical experience is a set of specific measures to implement government regulation. The theoretical aspect is a systematic scientific study of motives, actions, measures aimed at creating the most effective development of the national economy. Scientific approaches include the development of models and forecasts. An important task of the scientific aspect is the formation of economic thinking.

The market mechanism itself in its “pure form” does not allow timely identification of countries’ advantages in competition, rapid concentration of resources for the priority development of relevant industries, and accelerated industrial restructuring. This is a function of government regulation of the economy. One of the main functions of state regulation is the activation and intensification, first of all, of investment, innovation and entrepreneurial activity, while ensuring the stability of the national currency. This is achieved through financial, monetary and credit policy measures.

The function of government regulation is the impact of the state on the distribution of income in society. As is known, the market recognizes only one criterion for the distribution of income - the result of participation in competition in the market for goods and services, capital and labor. Therefore, both high incomes of those who succeed in competition and low incomes of those who fail are considered fair. It took some time for society to realize and admit that the distribution of income, fair from the point of view of the market, is unfair in human terms. Social protection measures are also required.
^ 2. The role of the state in the formation and development of a market economy.

State- institution of political power. First time term stato introduced by N. Machiavelli to designate the state as an institution of political power. Such an institution was a natural result of the social division of labor, the emergence of private property and classes.

One of the main signs of the formation of a state organization was the separation from society of a special layer of people performing managerial functions and endowed with special powers of authority.

From the middle of the 17th to the middle of the 19th century, the role of the state was limited to performing functions, creating the necessary legal framework for the relationship of economic entities. The state had to ensure that no one and nothing violated the established order of things.

Since the end of the 19th century, there has been a need for strong government intervention in the economic process. This was explained by the fact that production had reached unprecedented proportions. We are talking about increasing the concentration and centralization of production, complicating economic relations and exacerbating social problems. The state begins to actively intervene in regulating the economy, becomes Institute of Macroeconomic Regulation.

The gradual expansion of the economic functions of the state since the end of the 19th century. goes through three stages. Start first stage associated with the First World War. It lasted until the Great Depression of 1929-1933. Third stage begins after the Second World War and lasts until the mid-50s. Unlike the previous stage, this stage is characterized by the fact that countercyclical policies are complemented by a system of measures to stimulate economic growth rates. This stage prepared the necessary material ground for the next stage, called the “golden age of capitalism.”

State policy in the mid-50s - mid-70s of the twentieth century. proceeded from the following premises:

1. The economy must be mixed, and not just private capitalist. The need for government intervention in the economy is due to the so-called market flaws, i.e. the presence of public goods and natural monopolies, external influences and incomplete information (incomplete markets).

2. Coordinated macroeconomic policy is necessary due to the fact that the market by itself is not capable of leading to stable macroeconomic results.

3. The market by itself cannot lead to an equal distribution of income. Therefore, the state, on the one hand, must regulate the distribution of income, and on the other, protect those who have lost their sources of income.

Based on its goals, government regulation performs important functions in a market economy. A market economy based on private property cannot function without the necessary legislative framework. Therefore, the most important function of the state is to create a legal basis for the functioning and development of the economic system. This is implemented through legislation on property, taxes, entrepreneurship, foreign economic activity, antimonopoly laws, etc.

1. 
   ^ Objects and subjects of state regulation of the economy.

Main objects of state regulation:

Conditions for capital accumulation;

Payment balance;

Conditions of competition;

Training and retraining of personnel;

Environment;

Foreign economic relations.

Based on the level of tasks being solved, the following objects of government influence can be distinguished:

• 
  General economic processes - economic cycle, money circulation, employment, investment, R&D, prices;
• 
  Large sectors of the economy - sectoral, industrial, regional structure of the economy, agriculture, financial sector, infrastructure;
• 
  Industries and corporations;
• 
  Integrated development of the country's regions.

^ Subjects of state regulation of the economy are bearers, exponents and executors of economic interests.

Carriers economic interests - these are hired workers and owners of enterprises, farmers and land owners, small and large entrepreneurs, managers and shareholders, government officials, etc. Each of these groups has its own interests, determined by their socio-economic status, as well as affiliation to a particular region or type of activity. Representatives of economic interests are associations of business circles, trade unions, political parties etc., which implement their own concepts of socio-economic policy and exert and influence government agencies.

Performers economic interests - bodies of three branches of government (legislative, executive, judicial), built according to hierarchical principle, as well as the National Bank.

Feedback between state regulation of the economy and the carriers of economic interests is quite strict.

Firstly, the success of state regulation of the economy is manifested in growth rates, improvement in the structure of the economy, employment growth, a healthy balance of payments, a decrease in inflation rates, and an increase in living standards.

Secondly, the success of state regulation of the economy is reflected in indicators that are not always amenable to precise quantitative measurement: in the level of social tension (strikes, demonstrations), assessment of state regulation of the economy by means mass media, state of the environment, quality of life in cities.

Thirdly, carriers of economic interests directly and through their associations support or do not support the government. Loss of confidence of voters and associations of economic interests in the ruling party or parties is the main line feedback between state economic policy and bearers of economic interests.

1. 
   ^ Main tasks and structure of the State Expedition.

The economic growth;

Full employment;

Stability of price levels and stability of the national currency;

External economic balance.

In the system of economic goals, ensuring economic growth is considered the leading specific task. Its solution is associated with an absolute and relative increase in GNP.

Ensuring economic growth is associated with another important goal - meeting the requirements of full employment. Stability of the price level and national currency is a condition for economic stability. Solving the three listed targets means achieving relative macroeconomic balance within the national economy and creates more favorable conditions for achieving external economic balance.

^ The general purpose of the GRE is economic and social stability, strengthening the existing system within the country and abroad and adapting it to changing conditions. Achieving the general goal is possible in 2 ways:

1. 
   constructing target polygons;
2. 
   building a tree of goals.

The significance and consistency of goal setting in a particular country is determined by various internal and external circumstances.

By defining the goals of state regulation for a specific time period, the state is faced with the problem of mutually contradictory goals. Therefore, the most difficult issue of state regulation is the search for an optimally harmonious system of goals.

Topic 2. Concept of GRE methodology and its main elements.
1. Reproductive circulation and the relationship of economic elements.

3. Basic mechanisms and methods of GRE.

4. GRE methodologists and its improvement.

1. Reproductive circulation and the relationship of economic variables.

Indicators of social reproduction can be systematized on the basis of a diagram of the circulation of resources and products. In the structure of the reproduction process, when reflected from the supply side, the following blocks of macroeconomic indicators can be distinguished:

• 
  Production resources;
• 
  Manufacturing product;
• 
  Distributed Product;
• 
  Indicators of the dynamics of production resources.

Indicators of the results of production activities are gross domestic product, aggregate supply, added value, and net national product.

Indicators of product distribution are intermediate consumption, private consumer spending, government consumption, investment, and net exports.

Indicators characterizing the relationship of economic variables are potential GDP, labor productivity, accelerator, multiplier and balance of the national economy.

In the structure of the reproduction process, when reflected from the demand side, the following blocks of macroeconomic indicators can be distinguished:

• 
  The process of formation of the value of GDP (factor income);
• 
  The process of formation of the value of GDP by end use areas.

Indicators of GDP distribution are: propensity to save, propensity to import, propensity to consume, propensity to invest, price indices.
2. Concepts and principles of GRE, their dynamism

From the point of view of the conceptual foundations underlying the system of government regulation measures, there are 2 main models:

1) classic model;

2) neoclassical model.

The classical model is based on the theory of A. Smith and D. Ricardo. This model assumes minimal government intervention in regulating market processes.

The neoclassical model includes 2 main concepts:

1. 
   Keynesian
2. 
   monetarist.

Another model of state regulation arose after the teachings of Marx - the active role of the state in all economic and political processes through the planning system.

1. 
   Means, forms and methods of GRE. Composition and priority of GRE methods.

All funds are divided into: administrative and economic.

Administrative means are not associated with the creation of an additional material incentive or the danger of financial damage; they are based on the strength of state power.

Economic means are divided into means of monetary policy and fiscal policy.
Forms and methods of state regulation of the economy.

For each country, the set of instruments and the degree of government intervention are not universal. There are specifics, differences, and the use of certain instruments only in a given country or group of countries.

The state carries out its functions using a variety of methods of influence. Methods are classified according to various criteria.

There are different methods of direct and indirect influence. ^ Direct influence methods force economic entities to make decisions based not on independent economic choice, but on state regulations. Examples include the amount of taxes, the amount of depreciation deductions, and budgetary procedures for public investments. Direct methods are often highly effective due to the rapid achievement of economic results. But they also have disadvantages. They affect not only those market agents who are directly targeted by government measures, but also the subjects associated with them through market relations. In other words, direct methods disrupt the natural development of market processes.

^ Methods of indirect influence create only the prerequisites for the fact that when making an independent choice, subjects of economic relations prefer options that correspond to the goals of economic policy. Such methods include, for example, programming, providing economic information to the market sector. The disadvantage of indirect methods is a certain time lag that occurs between the moments when the state takes measures, the economy reacts to them and real changes in economic results.

Methods of state regulation are also classified according to organizational and institutional criteria. Here a distinction is made between administrative and economic methods. Administrative methods are divided into methods of prohibition, permission, coercion and are based on regulatory actions related to the provision of legal infrastructure. The purpose of the measures taken is to create certain “rules of the game” in a market economy. Administrative methods prescribe a strictly controlled line of behavior for economic agents.

^ Economic methods do not limit freedom of choice, sometimes expand it. An additional incentive appears to which the subject can either react or not pay the slightest attention, in any case reserving the right to freely make a market decision. A change, for example, by the state in the interest rate on its debt obligations adds one more option to the number of available options for profitable placement of savings - the purchase or sale of government securities.

^ Direct administrative methods can be represented as follows:

• 
  adoption of legislative and regulatory documents, regulations;
• 
  management of state property, including:

State treasury;

Public investment;

Government loans;

Subsidies;

• 
  licensing and quotas;
• 
  application of sanctions;
• 
  environmental protection;

• 
  formation and use of the budget;
• 
  formation of tax policy;
• 
  formation of depreciation policy;
• 
  determination of the bank reserve norm;

• 
  target programming;
• 
  establishing a minimum wage;
• 
  regulation of prices for certain types of goods and services;
• 
  antimonopoly policy, protection of competition.
• 
  state economic forecasting;
• 
  indicative planning;
• 
  regulation of the tax system;
• 
  monetary instruments;
• 
  currency levers;
• 
  social politics;
• 
  foreign economic forms of influence.

The essence of such regulation is to change the rate and procedure for depreciation write-off, when the state determines a part of net profit that can be exempt from taxes by being included in production costs, and then transferred to the depreciation fund for monetary financing of new capital investments.

With the help of accelerated depreciation, the business cycle, employment and R&D can be regulated.

Lecture 1. Methodological foundations of state regulation of the economy

Semantic (Public) Interface.

This type of interface arose in the late 70s of the 20th century, with the development of artificial intelligence. It can hardly be called an independent type of interface - it includes a command line interface, a graphical, speech, and facial interface. Its main distinguishing feature is the absence of commands when communicating with a computer. The request is generated in natural language, in the form of linked text and images. At its core, it is difficult to call it an interface - this is already a simulation of “communication” between a person and a computer.

Since the mid-90s of the 20th century, the authors have not encountered publications related to the semantic interface. It seems that due to the important military significance of these developments (for example, for the autonomous conduct of modern combat by robotic machines, for “semantic” cryptography), these areas were classified. Information that these studies are ongoing sometimes appears in periodicals (usually in computer news sections).

Control questions:

1. What is an operating system
2. What functions does the operating system perform?
3. Periods of evolution of operating systems
4. What is multitasking?
5. Examples of multi-user operating systems
6. What is the difference between preemptive and non-preemptive multitasking?
7. What is multi-threading
8. What are the hardware platforms?
9. Which systems are divided by area of ​​use?
10. What makes OS construction methods different?
11. Name the types of modern interfaces.
12. What interface does OS Windows have?

Literature:

1. N. A. Olifer, V. G. Olifer. Network OS. M: Statistics, 1997.

2. B. Bogumirsky. Effective work on IBM PC./SPb.:Peter, 1995.

3. Esko Valtanen. Disk operating systems for PCs. - K.: Regional Center for Translation and Information Services. 1992.

4. V.E. Figurnov. IBM PC for the user. Ed. 7th. - M.: INFRA-M, 1997.

State regulation of the economy in a market economy is a system of state measures of a legislative, executive and control nature, carried out by authorized government agencies and public organizations in order to stabilize and develop the economy, adapt the existing socio-economic system to changing conditions.

Most developed countries of the world are characterized by expanding and intensifying government intervention in various spheres of economic life.

The most important characteristic of the national economy is the established macroeconomic proportions - quantitative relationships between:

Various divisions and spheres of social production;

Industries;

Territorial distribution of productive forces.

Macroeconomic proportions presuppose such a distribution of social labor between industries and spheres of the economy that ensures their balanced development and satisfaction of social needs. Therefore, the proportionality of the national economy is manifested in correspondence: between the volume and structure of social and personal needs, on the one hand; the volume and structure of the national product - on the other.

Establishing, maintaining and changing existing proportions is a complex economic process. This complexity is due not only to the great variety of proportions in the national economy, but also to the fact that proportions are formed under the influence of many factors.

Macroeconomic proportions form a system in which the following types of proportions can be distinguished:

1) general economic - between the largest spheres of the national economy;

2) intersectoral - between interconnected sectors of the national economy;

3) intra-industry - between interrelated industries within one industry;

4) territorial - general economic, inter-industry and intra-industry, considered within the boundaries of a certain territory;

5) interstate - between individual states on the basis of the international division of labor.

Macroeconomic proportions can also be classified according to the form of measurement into physical, cost, and distribution of labor resources.

Natural-material proportions characterize the relationship between the production and consumption of certain types of products. Analysis of natural proportions is carried out using material balances.

Cost proportions show the relationship between individual elements of the value of the gross national product - cash receipts and income in the production of goods and services; income of enterprises, the state and the population; circulation of goods and money in the national economy.

The proportions of distribution of labor resources characterize the ratio of labor resources between spheres of activity, city and countryside, individual industries and regions, etc. Proportions in the national economy are objective. Proportions are dynamic; during economic development they change quantitatively and qualitatively. The proportions are not constant, they can be violated. There are general and specific disproportions:

General ones are associated with a violation of proportionality throughout the national economy and are, as a rule, long-term in nature;

Private ones are local in nature and can cover certain parts of social production.

Current stocks and government reserves play an important role in eliminating imbalances.

The imbalance of the Russian economy is manifested in disproportions:

Material and material;

Cost;

Structural;

Labor resources and jobs;

Regional, etc.

The balance of the national economy means the correspondence between interrelated industries, the volume of products produced and the needs for them, and acts in the form of balance, first of all, between supply and demand. A distinction is made between partial and general equilibrium.

Partial equilibrium is achieved at the macro level through the price mechanism and assumes equality of supply and demand for goods, services and resources.

General equilibrium requires coordination of the activities of all spheres of the economy. To stabilize the economy and overcome its imbalance, government regulation is widely used.

Objects of state regulation of the economy are spheres, industries, regions, socio-economic processes, i.e. what the state’s regulatory activities are aimed at to ensure conditions for the effective functioning of the economy.

The main objects targeted by the state include:

1. sectoral, industrial, regional, reproductive and social structures of the economy;

2. economic cycle;

3. employment;

4. standard of living;

5. education and training;

6. money circulation;

7. R&D and investments;

8. balance of payments;

9. social sphere, labor relations, mechanism for protecting the population;

10. environment;

11. prices, anti-inflationary processes;

12. public sector of the economy;

13. financial resources and interbudgetary relations;

14. processes of denationalization, privatization, demonopolization;

15. forms of ownership in different sectors of the economy;

16. foreign economic activity, etc.

The subjects of state regulation are the legislative, executive and judicial bodies of state power. IN Russian Federation This:

President of the Russian Federation;

Federal Assembly - parliament;

Government of the Russian Federation;

Federal courts.

In the modern world, when the transition of advanced countries to the information system took place, transnational capital emerged, independent and independent of national states, and began to play no less important role in state regulation than the state itself. "Transnational corporations" (TNCs) control up to half of world industrial production, 63% of foreign trade, approximately 4/5 of patents and licenses for new equipment, technologies and know-how. The core of the world economic system consists of about 500 TNCs, which have concentrated great power in their hands. They often dictate their will to other countries. From a regulatory perspective, it should be taken into account that the laws of the free market do not fully work within TNCs, where internal prices are set, determined not by the market, but by the strategy of the corporation.

Introduction

State regulation of the economy (GRE) in a market economy is a system of standard measures of a legislative, executive and control nature carried out by authorized government agencies and public organizations in order to stabilize and adapt the existing socio-economic system to changing conditions.

As the market economy developed, economic and social problems arose and worsened that could not be solved automatically on the basis of private property. There was a need for significant investments, unprofitable or unprofitable from the point of view of private capital, but necessary to continue reproduction in national ones; sectoral and general economic crises, mass unemployment, disruptions in monetary circulation, and increased competition in world markets required state economic policy (GEP).

The objective possibility of GRE appears with the achievement of a certain level of economic development, concentration of production and capital. In modern conditions, GRE is an integral part of the reproduction process. It solves various problems, for example: stimulating economic growth, regulating employment, encouraging progressive changes in the sectoral and regional structure, supporting exports. Specific directions, forms, and scales of GRE are determined by the nature and severity of economic and social problems in a particular country in a particular period.

Objects and goals of the State Expedition.

GRE objects are areas, industries, regions, as well as situations, phenomena and conditions of the socio-economic life of the country where difficulties have arisen or may arise, problems that cannot be resolved automatically or can be resolved in the distant future, while the removal of these problems is urgently necessary for the normal functioning of the economy and maintaining social stability.

The main objects of the State Expedition are:

• economic cycle;
• sectoral, industrial and regional structure of the economy;
• conditions for capital accumulation;
• employment;
• money turnover;
• payment balance;
• prices;
• competition conditions;
• social relations, social security;
• training and retraining of personnel;
• environment;
• foreign economic relations.

The essence of state anti-cyclical policy, or regulation of economic conditions, is to stimulate demand for goods and services, capital investment and employment during crises and depressions. For this purpose, private capital is provided with additional financial benefits, government spending and investment are increased. In conditions of a long-term recovery in the country's economy, dangerous phenomena may arise - the resorption of commodity reserves, an increase in imports and a deterioration in the balance of payments, an excess of demand for labor by supply and hence an unreasonable increase in wages and prices. In such a situation, the task of the GRE is to slow down the growth of demand, capital investment and production in order to, if possible, slow down the overproduction of goods and the overaccumulation of capital.

In the field of sectoral and territorial structure, GRE also plays a significant role. Here, with the help of financial incentives and government investments, privileged conditions are provided to individual industries and regions. In one case, support is provided to those sectors and units of the economy that are in a state of protracted crisis; in another case, the development of new sectors of the economy and types of production is encouraged, designed to lead to progressive structural changes within industries, between industries and throughout the national economy, to increase its efficiency and competitiveness. But measures can also be taken to curb excessive concentration of production.

The most important object of state regulation of the economy is capital accumulation. The production, appropriation and capitalization of profits always serve as the main goal of economic activity in a market economy. By creating additional incentives and opportunities at different times for all investors or individual groups of them in industries and territories, regulatory authorities influence the economic cycle and structure.

Employment regulation is the maintenance of a normal relationship between demand and supply of labor from the point of view of a market economy. This ratio should satisfy the economy’s need for qualified and disciplined workers, whose wages serve as sufficient motivation for them to work. However, the relationship between supply and demand should not lead to excessive wage growth, which could negatively affect national competitiveness. An unwanted and sharp decline in employment leads to an increase in the army of unemployed, a decrease in consumer demand, tax revenues, an increase in taxes on benefits and dangerous social consequences.

The GRE pays special attention to monetary circulation. The main direction of regulation of monetary circulation is the fight against inflation, which poses a serious danger to the economy.

The state of the balance of payments is an objective indicator of the economic health of the country. In all countries with a market economy, the state constantly carries out operational and strategic regulation of the balance of payments by influencing exports and imports, capital flows, increases and decreases in national currencies, and participation in international economic integration.

One of the main objects of regulation is PRICES. The dynamics and structure of prices reflect the state of the economy. At the same time, prices themselves greatly influence the structure of the economy, investment conditions, and the stability of national currencies.

State regulatory authorities seek to influence other GRE objects, for example, to interest private firms in the development of scientific research. Laws on competition, social protection, and environmental protection are being studied and improved.

GRE objects vary depending on the level of tasks they solve. These are the following hierarchical levels: firm level; region; industries; economic sectors (industry, agriculture, services); farms in general; global (social relations, ecology); supranational (economic and political relations with foreign countries, integration processes).

OBJECTIVES OF GRE.

The most important goal of the GRE is economic and social stability and strengthening of the existing system within the country and abroad.

From this main goal arise many specific goals, without the implementation of which the main goal cannot be achieved. These specific goals are inextricably linked with the objects of the GRE. The goal, i.e. straightening the economic cycle, is aimed at the object. Improving the sectoral and regional structure of the economy is aimed at sectoral and industrial, regional structures. Environmental improvement is aimed at the environment. More often than not, one goal cannot be achieved regardless of the others. For example, providing additional capital investment for the modernization of coal mines may be an intermediary goal for: stabilization and cost reduction in the domestic coal mining industry; reducing solid fuel imports and improving the fuel and energy balance; maintaining employment in the industry; relieving social tension in these areas; putting pressure on prices of oil and gas companies. It follows from this that specific goals are subordinate to the main goal and interact with each other.

GRE means.

Means of state regulation are divided into administrative and economic.

Administrative means are not associated with the creation of additional material incentives or the risk of financial damage. They are based on the power of state power and include measures of prohibition, permission and coercion. For example, the government banned the construction of enterprises within Moscow. It did not increase taxes or fines, but simply stopped issuing licenses. Coercive measures can be demonstrated by the fact that the state obliges industrial enterprises to organize on-site industrial training and create living conditions for workers engaged in production.

Administrative means of regulation in developed countries with market economy are used on a small scale. Their scope of activity is limited mainly to environmental protection and the creation of conditions for socially vulnerable segments of the population. Main instruments of government regulation:

• fiscal policy, that is, policy in the field of legal expenses and taxes;
• monetary policy;
• income regulation policy;
• social politics;
• state regulation of pricing;
• foreign economic regulation.

Economic means of state regulation are divided into means of monetary and budget policy. An independent comprehensive instrument of the State Expedition is the public sector in the economy. The main economic means are:

• regulation of the discount rate (discount policy implemented by the central bank)
• establishing and changing the size of the minimum reserves that the country's financial institutions are required to keep in the central bank
• operations of government agencies in the securities market
• securities, such as the issue of government bonds, their trading and redemption.

With the help of these tools, the state seeks to change the balance of supply and demand in the financial market in the right direction. Direct state economic regulation is carried out by means of budget policy.

The main tool of mobilization financial resources taxes are used to cover government expenses. They are also widely used to influence the activities of economic entities. State regulation through taxes depends to a decisive extent on the choice of the tax system, the height tax rates, as well as on the types and sizes of tax benefits. Taxes play two roles in the GRE: a) they are the main source of financing government spending b) they are a regulatory tool. Since the task of state budgetary authorities is not just to tax sources of income, but also to create a subtle mechanism for influencing economic behavior.

A special place among the GRE funds carried out with the help of taxes is occupied by the accelerated depreciation write-off of fixed capital and the associated formation and sale of hidden reserves, carried out within the framework of the permission of the Ministry of Finance. Accelerated depreciation write-off of fixed capital in modern conditions is the main means of stimulating accumulation, structural changes in the economy and an important tool for influencing the business cycle and employment. By changing the rates and procedures for depreciation write-off, government regulators determine that part of net income that can be exempt from taxes by being included in production costs and then transferred to the depreciation fund to finance future new capital investments. Depreciation rates are published regularly. We have before us a strong lever of state regulation of investments - exemption of profits from taxes, hiding them in a depreciation fund and forced use for new investments. The effect of accelerated write-off of fixed capital has a number of other consequences. An additional reduction in the share of taxes in profits due to the fact that as balance sheet profit decreases, its taxation is reduced due to the progressive nature of tax rates. Accelerated write-off leads to a separation of the book value of fixed assets from their real price.

Varying the rates of accelerated depreciation of fixed capital is widely used in all developed countries as a means of state conditions and structural policy, as well as to stimulate scientific research and the implementation of their results in production. The effect of depreciation charges is clearly visible in years of favorable economic conditions, when the period of recession and crises weakens. Benefits for accelerated depreciation write-off are equivalent to a reduction in revenues from taxes on profits to the state budget. The result could be an increase in other taxes or an increase in government debt. Budget expenditures for economic purposes are also used as instruments of state regulation. These may include government loans, subsidies, as well as the costs of purchasing goods and services in the private sector.

Government investment is carried out to a large extent in the public sector of the economy, which plays an important role in the GRE. The public sector includes a complex of economic facilities, wholly or entirely owned by the state, the functioning of which is always beneficial for the country's economy, but not profitable from the point of view of private capital. In general, the public sector consists of infrastructure facilities, which are generally not profitable, as well as enterprises in the primary and energy sectors, where huge investments are required and capital turnover is slow. The public sector part consists of stakes in mixed public-private companies. The existence of sectors in a market economy that are guided in their activities by principles that differ from the principles of private firms allows the use of GS to solve national problems. GS is actively used as a means of GRE. In a deteriorating environment, when private investment is declining, investment in public health is growing. In this way, the state seeks to counteract the decline in production and rising unemployment. GS plays a prominent role in government structural policy. The state creates new facilities or expands old ones in those sectors where private capital flows insufficiently. State-owned firms are also engaged in foreign trade, the export of capital abroad. GS serves to increase the efficiency of the national economy as a whole and is one of the tools for redistributing GDP.

Foreign economic regulation is also carried out. These are measures to stimulate the export of goods, services, capital, scientific and technical experience. Export lending, guaranteeing export loans and investments abroad, introduction or abolition of duties in foreign trade; measures to attract or restrict access of foreign capital to the country's economy, attracting foreign labor to the country, participation in international economic organizations, integration interstate associations. Individual instruments of state economic policy can be used for different purposes, in different combinations and with different intensity. Depending on the nature of the goals, the place of a particular instrument in the arsenal of GRE tools will change in a specific period.

State economic programming.

The highest form of state economic planning is state economic programming. Its task is the integrated use of all elements of GRE for global purposes. As the tasks became more complex, they began to formulate short-term, medium-term and long-term tasks, determine the procedure for solving them and the bodies responsible for the implementation of these decisions, allocate the necessary funds and determine the procedure for financing. The targets of such targeted programs are usually industries; regions; social sphere; various areas of scientific research. There are regular and emergency programs. Ordinary medium-term general economic programs are drawn up, as a rule, for five years with an annual extension of one year.

Emergency programs are developed in critical situations, in conditions of crisis, mass unemployment, and high inflation. They are carried out, as a rule, by means of administrative regulation. Almost all countries with market economies implement targeted programs. This is, for example, the privatization of new lands in East Germany after joining the Federal Republic of Germany. The subjects of economic programming are government agencies responsible for drawing up programs, their implementation and control over them. Programs are developed by a special government agency or the ministries of economics and finance. The Ministry of Finance is also developing a plan for financing the program. Representatives of the central bank, business unions, chambers of commerce and industry, and trade unions are also widely involved in the development of programs. The program and financial plan are approved annually by parliament.

State economic programming is quite effective in solving a number of economic problems. In a market economy, programming can only be indicative, that is, have a targeted recommendation-stimulating nature, nevertheless it is effective means solving economic problems at various levels. As a rule, programs ensure socio-economic development in the desired direction. Programming allows you to use all the means of State Expedition and avoid inconsistency and inconsistency in the regulatory activities of individual government bodies. State financial incentives, orders and purchases within the framework of economic programs have a noticeable and uneven impact on the competitiveness of individual enterprises, the position of industries, regions, social groups and cause resistance from those whose interests were infringed. Therefore, government programming bodies are subject to all sorts of influences, reflecting the conflicting interests of individual groups.

Mechanism of state regulation of price policy.

Prices are the object of constant attention and regulation by the state. Prices are one of the critical points in economic and socio-political life, where the interests of consumers and producers, importers and exporters collide. The impact on prices serves the global goals of the State Economic Expedition, the goals of the market situation and structural policy, the fight against inflation, strengthening national competitiveness in world markets and mitigating social tensions. The impact of state economic policy on other objects of regulation, in turn, is reflected in the processes of price formation. Specific actions in the area of ​​prices may have short-term or even emergency goals, which at a given moment may not coincide with other goals, but they always serve the general goal of state regulation - optimizing the pace and proportions of economic development and stabilizing the social system.

Classical political economy considered prices freely developing on the market as the main element of the mechanism for maintaining balance between supply and demand. Tariffs for government services railways, mail, telegraph, sale of food from state reserves in lean years, customs policy and indirect taxation, which significantly affects domestic prices, is not a complete list of government price regulation measures. Attempts to regulate prices in conditions of inflation and crisis through foreign trade policy turned out to be untenable. By the mid-1930s, many developed countries with market economies adopted laws granting the state the power to influence prices, including freezing them, and government measures to influence prices became an integral element of the State Expedition. Government measures to regulate prices can be legislative, administrative and judicial in nature. Laws adopted by parliaments create the legal basis for relations between economic entities, as well as between them and the state in the field of pricing. The complex of these laws represents price law. On the basis of this right, authorized state bodies carry out administrative activities to regulate prices. Measures to regulate prices are carried out by the ministries of economy, finance and the central bank. In every country, the government has expert committees, which include well-known specialists. The committees are called upon to advise government agencies on price issues and express their opinions on price bills.

Observation and impact on prices.

Price monitoring is the primary form of government activity in this area. Currently, price surveillance serves as the basis on which all government actions in this area are based. Price monitoring is carried out by central statistical offices. Independent studies of price movements are often carried out by trade union research centers and special commissions on assignments from international organizations.

The main purpose of price monitoring by government agencies and social partners is to measure the increase in the cost of living to determine the index of annual nominal increases in wages and pensions, as well as to determine the impact of price increases on production costs and national competitiveness. The state can influence prices by introducing or eliminating quantitative and customs restrictions in foreign trade, entering into integration unions, changing the discount rate, varying taxes, and issuing money. Essentially all government regulatory actions, no matter what purpose they serve, have an indirect impact on prices.

Government intervention is carried out through government-sanctioned overestimation of production costs through the inclusion of inflated depreciation write-offs and deductions to other funds in the cost price. As a result of this, situations arise in entire industries when “costs prop up prices,” that is, calculated (and not actual) production costs are so high at all enterprises in the industry as a result of government-announced benefits that price increases become a matter of course, and since benefits extend to the entire industry, then intra-industry competition in a favorable environment cannot be a sufficient obstacle to price growth.

Direct government intervention in the pricing process is the state policy of setting prices for so-called excise goods. Government subsidies have a direct impact on price formation. One type of such subsidies—price subsidies—provides for price reductions through special surcharges to the manufacturer or consumer. Direct impact on prices and price leadership occurs in industries where the state’s share in the consumption of goods and services is significant, for example, in military industries and in a number of construction sub-sectors. Government bodies, being regular buyers or customers of certain types of goods and services from private firms, establish “specific prices” by agreement with partners, which then become the base prices for the industry.

An effective means of regulating prices is the value added tax. Manufacturers include this tax in the price of a product or service, and differential changes in the rates of this tax directly affect prices. A special area of ​​the GEP is government influence on foreign trade prices. State encouragement of exports, exemption of exports from taxes, and in some countries, export subsidies, provision of preferential loans and transport tariffs significantly affect the conditions of price competition in the world market.

Establishing fixed prices for goods and services.

Setting prices for mineral raw materials extracted in state mines, for electricity from state power plants and railway, postal and telegraph tariffs is an example of fixing prices for goods and services of the public sector. These artificially low prices and tariffs help reduce private production costs and increase national competitiveness due to the artificially reduced profitability or scarcity of these state-owned assets. Fixing prices or setting limits for their increase in the non-state sector is a typical means of administrative economic regulation. It is rarely used and, as a rule, in a market economy it is ineffective in the long and even medium term. It is used most often in exceptional cases as a means of easing social tension. Control over prices for certain types of goods is carried out by national authorities.

Stages of development of GRE. The limits of its effectiveness.

In the process of its development, GRE went through several stages.

1. Creation of general favorable conditions for the reproduction of private capital; concentrating the state's efforts on developing labor, tax, trade, social legislation, customs policy, and ensuring the stability of money. Construction and acquisition of facilities in the raw materials and infrastructure industries.
2. Uncoordinated anti-crisis and structural actions, attempts to influence employment and prices.
3. Experiments with the use of monetary and budgetary means of regulating the economy. Wave of privatization of state property.
4. Transition in a number of countries to sectoral and regional medium-term programming; attempts to increase the effectiveness of GRE by studying the compatibility and interchangeability of regulatory instruments and determining their effectiveness.
5. Implementation of national medium-term programming in an increasing number of developed countries in combination with the development of long-term perspective guidelines. Increasingly complex use of regulatory instruments.
6. Measures to harmonize national medium-term programs at the interstate level within the framework of integration associations.

The scale, tools and effectiveness of the State Expedition were decisively influenced by the challenges faced by the economies of individual countries, the material capabilities of the state, reflected in the share of GDP redistributed by it and in the absolute amount of funds that it can use for the State Expedition, the accumulated experience and successes in scientific development of the problems of the State Expedition. in a market economy. Along with general theoretical works, since the second half of the 60s, more and more specific applied studies began to be published in developed countries, devoted to a quantitative analysis of the consequences of GRE measures. The cooperation of scientists with government bodies responsible for making economic and political decisions has also intensified. The nature and direction of scientific research in the field of GRE has undergone significant changes over the past three to four decades. If in the early 50s the question was discussed: “To regulate or not to regulate the economy?”, then later - “What should be the degree of this regulation? For what purposes, in what directions and by what means should it be regulated?” However, the possibilities of GRE are not unlimited. The economic basis of the GRE is the part of GDP redistributed through the state budget and extra-budgetary funds, and state property. The effectiveness of the state economic program, other things being equal, is higher, the higher the government revenues, the larger the share of GDP is redistributed by the state, the greater the role the public sector plays in the economy. But government revenues and the public sector have relative limits to growth.

Limits on state income growth.

In the 50s and 60s, government revenues in the most developed countries with market economies showed a general tendency to grow at a higher rate than GDP indicators and income of legal and individuals. Currently, the opposite trend is observed, since further growth in taxation of profits and capital undermines the motivation of entrepreneurial activity, reduces incentives for investment and can serve as an impetus for the outflow of capital. The increase in taxes and fees on wage earners, farmers and freelancers also cannot continue indefinitely. Taxes cannot take away the bulk of income from the population. Government revenues without increasing taxes can increase even with some reduction in tax rates in conditions of economic recovery. There are certain relative limits for the growth of government revenues:

• - boundaries of sufficient motivation for entrepreneurial activity;
• - social boundaries of taxation of employees and the middle strata;
• - boundaries of GDP growth.

The possibilities of state ownership are also limited, since the public sector cannot grow, capturing more and more positions in key sectors of the economy, since this contradicts the interests of private property.

The GRE, which encourages self-financing, also has certain boundaries. The final material basis for self-financing is gross profit - the difference between price and actual production costs. Self-financing is carried out as one of the options for the state-sanctioned use of profits, and the possibilities of appropriating profits and their size are inextricably linked with the phase of the reproduction cycle in which the country’s economy is located. GRE through self-financing is based on the ability to artificially increase investment incentives during a recession. But the state's activities in this area are limited by the budget. In a deteriorating environment, when budget revenues are declining and costs to support the economy are growing, it is forced to provide firms with additional investment incentives for self-financing and thereby further reduce their income. An integral part of self-financing is retained earnings.

Encouraging an increase in the share of retained earnings at the expense of dividends is also not unlimited. The interests of shareholders stand in the way of this. One of the most important and effective means of GRE and the main element of self-financing is the accelerated depreciation write-off of fixed capital. But this effective tool itself turns out to be highly dependent on the state of the market. During a crisis or depression, production capacity utilization and output are reduced, and the government allows an increasing portion of fixed capital to be written off as a depreciation fund. But costs are already rising—customer payments are becoming more difficult, suppliers are going bankrupt, and the costs of storing and selling products are rising.

Even if depreciation charges are calculated at the previous write-off rates, they are spread over a smaller number of units of production due to a reduction in production. The possibility of price increases in a crisis situation, if not excluded, is significantly limited compared to periods of favorable conditions. A decrease in gross profits can lead to a situation where the possibility of hiding profits in the sinking fund for the purpose of their further use to finance investments will be excluded, that is, government permits to increase the share of write-offs of fixed capital will not be used, since the permitted write-offs will be greater than actual profits. All this can be expressed by the formulas:

A+Zpost+Zper
P=C- -----,
IN

where P is profit, C is the price of a unit of production, A is depreciation, Zpost is other fixed costs, Zper is variable costs, B is output in natural units.

With a reduction in production, measured by the coefficient K1, and assuming that the price remains unchanged, the formula looks like this:

A+Zpost+K1*Zper
P=C-------.
K1*V

Due to the fact that K1<1, знаменатель уменьшается быстрее числителя, издержки растут и прибыль уменьшается.

Let's imagine that the government, in order to stimulate the economy, increased the rate of depreciation write-offs. The increase in the write-off rate is indicated by the coefficient K2.

K2*A+Zpost+K1*Zper
P2=C---------.
K1*V

The number grows even faster than in the second case, the costs increase even more. They may increase to such an extent that they equal or exceed the price.

GRE through taxes and depreciation rates on fixed capital has boundaries: budgetary, arising from the limits of possible refusal of budgetary revenues; social, related to the willingness of individuals and legal entities to put up with tax oppression; profitability boundaries determined by the increase in production costs per unit of output as production decreases and the depreciation limit for a given situation is reached. Even funds accumulated on a preferential basis within the framework of self-financing are not profitable to invest in conditions of underutilized capacity. The effectiveness of GRE through government spending is limited by the fact that the need to finance government regulatory measures increases sharply at a time when the ability to mobilize funds for financing is sharply reduced. The main limit of the GRE is the possible discrepancy between its goals and the private interests of capital owners in conditions of relative freedom to make business decisions. Private capital only participates in the implementation of a state program if the state guarantees it higher profits than it could receive by refusing to cooperate with the program. The state can guarantee a certain rate and amount of profit to private capital to the extent of its financial capabilities, and they are limited.

The listed boundaries of the GRE in a market economy are relative in nature. Within these boundaries, GRE continues to develop and prove its effectiveness in a variety of circumstances. The GRE mechanism is constantly being improved. In modern conditions, the practice of GRE has proven to be sufficiently effective to prevent general crises and socially dangerous levels of unemployment.

Bibliography:

1. 1. Kholodov L.G. “Issues of state regulation of the economy.” 1994 Ed. "Economy"
2. 2. Shenaev, Kuznetsov “Western Europe, paradoxes of economic regulation”, 1994. Ed. " Economy"
3. 3 “Government regulation of the fiscal sector in industrialized countries”, scientific and analytical review. 1993
4. 4 Jeffy Sachs “Market Economics and Russia”, 1994. Ed. "Economy".