Exercise stress. Basic characteristics of physical exercise techniques (spatial, temporal, spatio-temporal, dynamic, rhythmic) What are physical qualities

Characteristics of exercise

Physical exercises as a variety of human motor actions contribute to solving the problems of physical education. Today there are a large number of different physical exercises.

In order to navigate through them and correctly select them to solve both general and specific problems of physical education, it is important to understand the basic essence of their content.

The content of physical exercises is the actions included in them, as well as the processes that occur in the body during the exercise (mental, physiological, biochemical, etc.). Physical exercises, as voluntary movements, rely on human consciousness and are aimed at achieving some results. Performing physical exercises is associated with attention, thinking, and volitional efforts.

When performing physical exercises, functional changes occur that improve and improve various systems of the human body.

It is important for a teacher to consider physical exercises as a means for solving educational problems of physical education (formation of motor skills, development of physical qualities, etc.).

The form of physical exercise depends on the characteristics of the content. The form of physical exercise is its internal and external structure (i.e. organization, construction).

Internal structure is the relationship between various processes in the body that occurs when performing some exercise.

When performing an exercise, energy processes (neuromuscular, etc.) must interact with each other.

External structure is the visible side of exercises, characterized by the relationship between various parameters of movements (characterized by spatial, temporal, dynamic features of movements).

Form and content are interconnected. Content plays a leading role in relation to form. For example: as running speed increases, step length and torso angle change. Consequently, as some elements of the content change, the form of the exercise changes. For this reason, in order to successfully perform and achieve success in a physical exercise, its content is changed, thereby creating conditions for improving the functional capabilities of the body.

Form also influences content. A rational form of performing the exercise contributes to a more effective manifestation of physical abilities. (A correctly executed swing when throwing increases the throw range and increases the chances of successfully completing the exercise.)

Physical exercise technique is the most effective, rational way of performing a motor action, with the help of which a motor task is solved.

The term “technique” refers to those physical exercises that are formed taking into account the patterns of movements. The effectiveness of the technique is expressed in a certain effect on the body of those involved or in quantitative indicators of the physical exercise, i.e. its effectiveness. In this case, it is extremely important to take into account the degree of physical and even mental preparedness of students.

Motor actions can be performed in various ways, but only the most rational ones can be called technique. The effectiveness of physical exercise techniques is constantly being improved and developed. This can be explained by the desire to achieve ever higher results when performing physical exercises. The progress of technology is due to the discovery of some new biomechanical patterns of movements, the emergence of more advanced equipment and inventory, and an increase in the physical fitness of those involved. The criterion for assessing the effectiveness of the technique of the exercises performed should be the external form (in figure skating, gymnastics), the quantitative result (in running, swimming, etc.) or the fulfillment of a specific motor task (hitting the target). In the technique of physical exercises there are: the basis of the technique, the main link of the technique, the details of the technique.

The basis of the technique is the main, basic elements of the exercise that are necessary to solve a motor task, i.e. those that reflect the distinctive features of one exercise from another. Failure to perform or violation of one of the elements or the sequence of elements makes it impossible to solve the motor task of this exercise; the exercise must not be performed or distorted.

The defining link of the technique is the most important and decisive part of the basis of the technique of a physical exercise, which is usually performed in a short period of time and requires great muscle effort. (In jumping - repulsion, in throwing - the final effort before the throw.) Its effectiveness also depends on these parts of the exercise.

Details of technique are secondary features of a physical exercise that are not characteristic of it. They can be modified, that is, they can give a certain individuality to each person’s performance of the exercise. The details of the technique depend on the morphological and functional characteristics of the person (child), as well as on the conditions in which this exercise is performed.

Modern technique for performing any exercise is based on a rational basis of motor action, which is the same for all performers, i.e. there is a standard technique.

The standard performance of a motor action does not exclude individual characteristics in the execution of some elements that do not distort the basis of the motor action.

Individualization of equipment can occur in the following ways:

1) changes are made to the standard technique that take into account the characteristics of certain groups of people: physical fitness, constitution, age, etc.;

2) changes made to standard equipment take into account the characteristics of a particular person, while the equipment acquires an individual style, characteristic only of this person.

When teaching children, attention should be paid to individualizing the technique, since the standard technique is based on the analysis of movements performed by adults. Individualization of technology has two sides: 1) standard technology should be adapted to the characteristics of the student; 2) the student must change the functional capabilities of the body in accordance with the technique.

When teaching preschool children, they should develop the basics of accessible physical exercise techniques.

The movements are divided into: spatial, temporal, spatio-temporal (kinematic), dynamic and rhythmic characteristics of movements.

Spatial characteristics include: body position (initial position of the body during the exercise) and trajectory, i.e. the path of movement of body parts.

Starting position - the position of the body before starting the exercise, relatively motionless. By changing the starting position you can complicate the exercise. The starting position should ensure the effectiveness of the exercise. In the technique of performing some exercises, certain positions of body parts (head, arms, legs) are also important; aesthetic requirements may also be imposed on them (drawn socks, arched torso when performing gymnastic-type exercises). Some starting positions, static poses can have independent meaning (stand at attention).

When performing physical exercises, the body, as well as its parts, can move both in space and relative to each other. The effectiveness of physical exercise depends on the posture during the movement itself. By changing the position of the body when performing an exercise, you can change the direction of all dynamic support reactions, which leads to acceleration of the body in the desired and beneficial direction for the given conditions.

The trajectory of movement is the path taken by the moving part of a body or object.

The trajectory is divided into: shape, direction and amplitude. The shape of the trajectory must be rectilinear and curvilinear. A person very rarely performs rectilinear movements, but in cases where it is necessary to develop the highest speed on a short path, then the trajectory will be rectilinear (punching in boxing, thrusting in fencing, hitting a suspended ball). Curvilinear trajectories are more often used, since in this case it is not necessary to expend additional muscle effort to overcome the inertia of movement. (Such trajectories are also used in throwing, hand movements when swimming, etc.) The shape of the trajectory depends on the moving mass of the body: the greater the mass, the simpler the shape of the trajectory (hand movements are more varied than leg movements).

Direction of movement. The effectiveness of physical exercise, as well as the successful completion of the assigned motor task, depends on it. The direction of movement is determined by external landmarks or planes of the body (the direction of a body part towards one’s own body can be determined).

The main directions of the human body are usually considered to be: the directions “up-down”, “forward-back”, “right-left”. In flexion movements, the terms “forward” and “backward” are used, for movements in the lateral plane (antero-posterior) “right”, left”, if movements are performed in the facial plane (tilts to the sides); “to the right”, “to the left” are terms for rotational movements in the horizontal plane (turns to the right, to the left).

Vision plays a leading role in the direction of movement. During rapid changes of direction, the movement of the head should precede the movement of other parts of the body.

The amplitude of movement is determined by the distance of movement of body parts. The amplitude is measured in angular values ​​(degrees), linear measures (step length), can be determined by symbols (half-squat), as well as external landmarks and landmarks on one’s own body. The amplitude of movement as its scope depends on the structure of the joints, the elasticity of the ligaments and muscles.

There are active mobility of joints (achieved by the active work of muscles), passive mobility caused by the action of external forces. Passive mobility is usually greater.

In life, in the practice of physical education, the maximum amplitude of movements is used, but not always. According to the amplitude of movements, they are: sweeping (large amplitude), small (small amplitude).

If the direction or amplitude of movements do not correspond to the assigned motor task, then such movements are called inaccurate.

Temporal characteristics include the duration of physical exercises or their elements and tempo.

Physical exercises and their elements are performed for different durations, i.e., different time spent. Knowing the duration of the exercise, as well as the duration of its elements, you can determine the total volume of the load and regulate it.

The pace of movements as a time characteristic is determined by the frequency of repetition of movement cycles or the number of movements per unit of time (for example, the walking pace is 120–140 steps/min).

The pace of movement depends on body weight. With a change in movement, the structure of the movement changes qualitatively (running 180–200 steps/minute). Changing the pace of movement leads to increased or decreased physical activity. The pace depends on the characteristics of the body, on the level of mastery of this exercise.

Spatiotemporal characteristics include speed of movement and acceleration. “The speed of movements is determined by the ratio of the magnitude (length) of the path traveled by the body or part of it to the time spent on it” (A.V. Keneman, D.V. Khukhlaeva, 1985, p. 47). Speed ​​is measured in meters per second. If the speed is constant, then the movement is called uniform; if the speed changes, then the movement is called uneven.

Acceleration is the change in speed of movement per unit time. Acceleration must be positive (when the speed increases) and negative (when the speed decreases).

By performing exercises, we can change their speed and acceleration. Based on this situation, movements are abrupt, starting at high speeds, unevenly accelerated and unevenly completed.

Movements are smooth, performed without sudden changes in speed. Movements with constant speed and constant acceleration are rare. There are usually no sudden changes in speed.

There is a distinction between the speed of movement of the entire body and the speed of individual parts of the body.

It is important to teach children to control the speed of movements (maintain a given speed, increase and decrease it). The dynamic characteristics of movements are determined by the forces that influence the movement of the human body. These forces are divided into internal and external.

Internal forces include: passive forces of the musculoskeletal system (elasticity, muscle viscosity); active forces of the musculoskeletal system (muscle traction forces); reactive forces (reflected forces) arising from the interaction of individual parts of the body during accelerated motion.

External forces include: ground reaction force; gravity of one's own body; resistance forces of the external environment and physical bodies; gravity of the projectile, inertial forces of bodies moved by humans.

Human motor activity looks like the application of muscle traction forces that interact with internal and external forces. When performing physical exercises, one should strive for a more complete use of driving forces while simultaneously reducing braking forces.

The rhythmic characteristic of movements is rhythm, that is, the combination in time of strong, accentuated parts of the movement with weak, passive ones.

The strong accented part of the movement is performed with the greatest muscle tension. When performing physical exercises correctly, moments of muscle tension and relaxation should alternate.

There are cyclic and acyclic movements. Cyclic movements are characterized by a continuous alternation of the same movements (the same cycles).

Cyclic movements are a sequential alternation of individual phases of an integral movement (cycle) and the cycles themselves. All elements of movements that make up one cycle are necessarily present in the same sequence in all cycles. Each cycle of movements is connected with the previous and subsequent ones. Cyclic movements include wrestling, running, walking, swimming, skating and skiing, rowing, cycling, etc.

Acyclic movements are integral, one-time, complete acts that have independent meaning. By the nature of the work, these are mainly exercises that maximally mobilize strength, speed, and muscle contractions. Acyclic movements include athletics jumping, lifting barbells, shooting, and gymnastic exercises. Acyclic movements do not have repeated cycles. Each acyclic movement has a certain sequence of phases. Thus, the preparatory phase creates the most favorable conditions for performing the movement in the main, main phase. Such conditions can be created using movement directed in the direction opposite to the main movement. To do this, you can use movements in the form of a run-up, jump, and rotational movements, which help to approach the main phase of the movement.

The main (main) phase of movement is aimed at solving the main specific motor task.

In this phase, it is important to rationally use driving forces at the right moment, in the appropriate place and direction.

The final phase is aimed at slowing down movements and maintaining balance.

Along with the fact that the exercises are divided into phases, they also highlight elements of movements, i.e. movements of individual parts of the body (in throwing: starting position, aiming, swing, throw, maintaining balance).

There are qualitative characteristics of movements, which include: precise movements, economical movements, energetic movements, expressive movements.

Accurate movements are those movements that are performed in accordance with the motor task and in accordance with all the characteristics of movement.

Economical movements are characterized by the absence of unnecessary movements or their minimum.

Energetic movements have pronounced strength, speed, power, and overcome significant resistance.

Smooth movements are performed with a gradually changing degree of muscle tension, with gradual acceleration or deceleration.

Expressive movements reflect the psycho-emotional state of the child in accordance with the task or plan.

The tasks of physical education of preschool children are determined by the Program of Education and Training in Kindergarten (1985, I987, 2005).

To solve the problems of physical education in kindergarten, a list of exercises available to children of a given age has been determined for each age group. When selecting and performing exercises, the individual characteristics of children should also be taken into account.

In the first years of life, the child’s motor experience is limited. For this reason, hygienic conditions and natural factors are of great importance.

For young children, a certain regime of activity, sleep, nutrition, and active recreation is established. At an early age, starting from the second month of life, passive, passive-active exercises are used in combination with massage and hardening procedures, simulation exercises, and exercises aimed at specific subject tasks. Exercises used include crawling, preparatory exercises for walking, rolling and throwing balls, exercises with toys and objects, and simple rhythmic exercises.

From the age of 3, exercises are used to teach basic movements: various types of walking, running, jumping, jumping into depth, throwing balls and sandbags with one and two hands.

Crawling and climbing exercises are used, which become more complex in each age group. General developmental exercises are performed by children both with and without objects. Exercises are highlighted that promote the formation of correct posture and prevention against flat feet.

Constructions and reconstructions gradually become more complicated.

Outdoor games are very widely used, which also become more complicated depending on the age of the children.

By the age of 5–6 years, preschoolers are able to correctly take the starting position to perform exercises and master the simplest formations and changes. These exercises help children navigate space and perform exercises collectively.

Outdoor games help improve basic movement skills and develop physical qualities.

Exercises that are complex in terms of coordination are usually used with children of older preschool age.

With preschoolers, starting from the age of 3, sports exercises are used: sledding, skiing, sliding along ice paths; Children from 6–7 years old are taught to skate. In the summer, children are taught to ride bicycles and scooters; They teach elements of sports games and swimming. If the kindergarten has a swimming pool, swimming lessons are provided year-round. Analyzing the exercises recommended for preschool children, it should be noted that almost all of them are dynamic in nature.

When choosing physical exercises, you should consider how they combine with each other. The selection of exercises is also determined by the gradual involvement of various muscle groups in the work. It is necessary to correctly select exercises for physical education classes, taking into account the main objectives of the lesson.

When selecting exercises, you should take into account their appropriate repetition over a certain period of time (during the day, week, month). Before choosing new exercises, it is extremely important to carefully analyze the previous motor activity of children.

The most general classification is based on historically established systems of means of physical education, according to which the following groups of exercises are distinguished:

1. Gymnastics.

4. Tourism.

Features of the first group of exercises are:

a) in selective influence on various muscles, muscle groups, parts of the body;

b) the ability to accurately dose the load;

c) in the use of objects, equipment, music.

In the physical education of preschool children, in addition to performing basic (natural) movements in a playful form, outdoor games are used. Οʜᴎ are defined as complex motor activities performed in unexpectedly changing conditions and situations, determined by established rules aimed at identifying the final outcome or quantitative result. Children's activities are organized on the basis of a figurative plot or game tasks and are complex in nature.
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Game exercises include elements of sports games in preschool age.

Sport (sports exercises) is characterized by a focus on achieving the highest performance in any type of physical exercise. Sport places high demands on a person’s physical and mental capabilities. For this reason, it is available only upon reaching a certain stage of age development, subject to appropriate physical fitness and health. With preschool children, sports exercises are used in a simplified form, which form only the correct foundations of sports movements.

Tourist exercises (tourism) allow you to consolidate motor skills and develop physical skills in natural conditions. With preschoolers, trips are organized outside the kindergarten site, outside the city, using various methods of transportation and walks. Walking excursions are conducted with a specific purpose. These exercises are considered the simplest tourism.

Physical exercises can be divided according to their focus for the development of physical qualities.

Dexterity of movement as the ability to control one’s body is one of the basic qualities that develops intensively in preschool age. To develop this quality, gradually more complex exercises with and without objects and complicated ways of performing basic movements are used. Exercises are widely used to develop balance, which is an important basis for many natural movements. Here, exercises are used in crawling, climbing, walking on limited support, etc.
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Dexterity and balance as qualities based on a person’s coordination capabilities are very important for a preschool child. Motor skills associated with these qualities should be consolidated and developed in outdoor games.

To develop flexibility with preschool children, gymnastic exercises with and without objects are used.

Preschool children are given exercises to develop speed: mainly exercises performed at different paces, short-term running at speed. It is inappropriate to set speed development for preschool children as a special task.

Children are offered exercises to develop endurance, mainly in the form of walking and running over a certain distance or for a certain time.

Development of strength. There are very few exercises that contribute to this, since in preschool age movements associated with lifting and pushing heavy objects cannot be used. It is inappropriate to purposefully work on the development of this quality in connection with the age-related morphofunctional characteristics of preschool children.

However, physical exercises can be divided (classified) into groups based on various characteristics: the historical classification and division of exercises for the development of various physical qualities, as well as on anatomical grounds, by types of sports, etc.

THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN PRESCHOOL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

CHAPTER 2. Theory and methodology for the development of movements, the formation of motor skills and abilities, the development of motor abilities of preschool children

2.1. CHILDREN'S DEVELOPMENT FEATURES

EARLY AND PRESCHOOL AGE

The life of a child begins even before his birth during the period of intrauterine development, based on which the newborn’s body is already characterized by widely varying physiological characteristics. The physiological principle of classifying born children primarily according to signs of physiological maturity or immaturity, and not according to body weight and length, was substantiated by Professor I. A. Arshavsky. For this reason, at different age periods, the body can be considered perfect and mature if all its physiological functions correspond to its calendar age and the body is able to adapt to the conditions with which it must interact.

Physiological immaturity of an infant is characterized by both a lag in the development of physiological functions that arose during intrauterine development, and a later weakening of their functioning compared to a physiologically mature newborn.

Immediately after birth, the baby finds itself in conditions with a significant temperature difference and is exposed to sudden cold exposure. At the same time, heat transfer in a newborn does not decrease, but increases. This occurs due to the expansion of blood vessels in the skin (vasodilation) and increased blood flow in it. The newborn reacts by sweating to the reduced temperature of the environment, and this increases heat transfer. After birth, the child has a specific posture: the head is bent in relation to the body, the arms are folded at the elbow joints, the fingers are clenched into fists (the thumb is inside), the legs are bent at the knees, the toes are bent towards the sole. This characterizes flexural hypertension, which increases the level of heat production and reduces the total body surface for heat transfer.

During the first 7 years of his life, a child goes through a huge developmental path, the success of which is determined by environmental factors and characteristics of upbringing. Adults surrounding the child should remember that the educational process begins with respect for the child as an individual; human individuality already exists in infancy. Much in individuality is determined by the characteristics of the nervous system, congenital and acquired; this fully applies to the properties of the nervous system, which play a huge role in the development of the child. L. S. Vygotsky also wrote that the development of a child is a single, but not homogeneous, holistic, but not homogeneous process. For this reason, the age-related evolution of a child’s brain is a complex and multifaceted process. It is necessary to understand the mechanisms of maturation of the nervous system, which makes it possible to understand the mechanisms of nervous activity. This mechanism consists of receiving stimuli from the external and internal environment; in the transmission of impulses to the centers of the brain, where they are analyzed; and then in developing a response, which is carried out by the working bodies. These provisions contain the principle of reflex, which lies at the basis of nervous activity. In an infant, reflexes vary: from simple muscle contractions to the manifestation of a revival complex at the sight of the mother’s face.

Already by analyzing the reflex pattern, it is possible to identify individual characteristics of the nervous system, since children perceive the same stimulus differently. All these features of the nervous system are reflected in the development process. The “biological frame of personality” is the entire totality of the child’s individual characteristics. This framework undergoes changes in the process of upbringing, and the social skills formed in children are also woven into it.

The development of motor functions also has a great influence on the development of the child and his nervous processes. In turn, their maturation is directly related to the activity of the motor analyzer, the development of which occurs on the basis of distant receptors, i.e., vision and hearing receptors, as well as the tactile-muscular analyzer. All this affects the psychophysical development of the child.

In the first half of life, the development of a child’s movements is based on unconditioned reflexes, gradually forming conditioned reflex connections that improve throughout life. A child, unlike animals, has a rather long path to the development of vital movements and the most important modes of activity. As noted by physiologists: the higher a living creature stands in the evolutionary series, the longer its childhood period lasts.

At birth, humans have much fewer “automatic” actions than animals, but they are more capable of learning. The specificity of the human brain lies precisely in the enormous ability to assimilate new knowledge and various kinds of social traditions.

The central nervous system of a child also develops on the basis of innate unconditioned reflexes, which in physiologically mature newborn children appear in response to irritation of certain areas of the skin surface. Such unconditioned reflexes include: grasping, plantar, heel reflex (IN Arshavsky reflex), when generalized motor activity is combined with a grimace of crying and screaming, caused by moderate pressure on the heel bone; walking and crawling reflexes. As the child develops, they gradually collapse and then form again, but under the influence of upbringing. The development of the nervous system also occurs on the basis of innate reflexes: food, orientation, defensive, protective.

In the first weeks of life, a child begins to develop conditioned reflexes to various stimuli - visual, auditory, etc. The use of any external stimuli for a long time in a certain sequence contributes to the formation of an integral system of responses - a dynamic stereotype. The child's conditioned reflexes are formed on the basis of the relationship between the first and second signaling systems.

It should be noted that the central nervous system of a child retains traces of the long evolution of the animal world. This is evidenced by the following facts: regulation of the functioning of internal organs, the heart, automatic reactions to temperature and pain, stimuli are regulated by approximately the same nerve centers as in animals. At the same time, humans have a much more developed cerebral cortex and especially its frontal regions than higher mammals.

In the human (child) nervous system there are evolutionarily more ancient groups of centers that regulate relatively primitive functions. Multifaceted complex actions are directed by evolutionarily newer centers that unite various systems of the body. Thus, the centers of the spinal cord regulate the functioning of internal organs within certain areas of body segments. Breathing and cardiac activity are controlled by the centers of the medulla oblongata. The midbrain centers regulate the complex response of the entire body to visual and auditory stimuli. The diencephalon and subcortical nodes integrate all signals coming from the external and internal environment. This is where emotional states are formed - feelings of fear, tension, aggressiveness, joy. As physiologists have proven, a person has areas in the subcortical centers, the irritation of which causes various emotional states: anger, bliss, fear, indifference.

A complex system of deep centers is controlled by the cerebral cortex, which without these structures cannot function and compare the signals received from them with individual experience, as well as control the activation or inhibition of individual nerve centers. Only the functions of the cerebral cortex have the ability to subtly analyze the situation, acquire and use individual experience when it is extremely important. At the same time, some reactions in the nervous system are rigidly programmed and are launched in the form of an automatic sequence of actions, while other reactions are unstable, changing during the process of their implementation.

With a properly organized upbringing process, a child can develop many stereotypes, which will greatly facilitate the response to environmental conditions, thereby increasing the performance of nerve cells. The child gets used to performing physical exercises every day in the morning exercises, after a nap, in independent motor activity, which leads to the formation of a stereotype and the need to perform them at the same time. This is how the child develops certain motor patterns (a sequence of developed actions), which are reflected in his behavior. Both the formation and change of patterns depend on the age, environment, and developmental characteristics of the child. For this reason, the nervous system of even an infant can be trained, and these influences can be carried out taking into account the developed stereotypes, developing in him the need to consciously respond to his environment.

As the child and his nervous system develop, the functions of static and dynamic balance appear and become stronger. This happens under the influence of external and internal factors. As I.M. Sechenov argued, all voluntary movements of a child are formed under the influence of social conditions. This also applies to the function of upright walking, since the child, as a child of nature, does not even need it. Only being in society as a social being can he perform vital movements, which are improved in the process of education and training.

The formation of movement skills is greatly influenced by the state of the sense organs through which the child perceives the environment. By the time of birth, the child’s senses are more developed than their movements.

M. Yu. Kistyakovskaya identified the sequence of formation of connections between the motor analyzer and others. Thus, the long-term development of a child’s motor analyzer affects the formation of his motor functions, which are formed on the basis of distant receptors that are capable of perceiving stimuli at a distance. This applies primarily to vision systems, hearing systems and a number of other analyzer systems.

In the second month of life, a connection is established between the kinetic and vestibular apparatus and this is manifested in raising and holding the head in different positions of the child: on the stomach, on the back, in an upright position. During this age period, it is possible for a connection to form between the kinesthetic analyzer and the mucous membrane of the lips, the oral cavity, and the skin of the hands, which is manifested in finger sucking and the direction of the hands towards the mouth. Later, connections are established between the motor and visual analyzers, which is expressed in the infant by raising his hand above his face and examining it. At the age of 3.5–5 months, the baby develops even more complex visual-kinetic connections. You can observe how he directs his hands to a suspended object (toy) and grabs it.

The formation of interreceptor connections contributes to the formation of complex functional systems with the formation of a unique hierarchy of centers with a very complex subordination. Many motor acts are duplicated at different levels, which creates high reliability in the implementation of movement skills and the ability to modify the method of motor action under suddenly changing conditions.

Physiologists have established that the lowest level of movement regulation is carried out by the segmental apparatus of the spinal cord. The cells of each segment are associated with certain muscle groups and regulate their activity. Motor nerve cells

Characteristics of physical exercise - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Characteristics of physical exercises" 2017, 2018.

When performing any physical exercise, a person solves a certain motor task: push a barbell of a given weight, overcome a certain height in a jump, push a shot as far as possible. In many cases, the same problem can be solved in several ways. For example, kicking a soccer ball can be done with the outside or inside of the foot, the toe, or the instep. Thus, we are talking about movement technique.

Physical exercise technique – This is a way to solve a motor problem.

Each method of performing a physical exercise is based on a set of interrelated movements. These movements, united by a common semantic (target) orientation of the physical exercise, are called operations.

Standard technique – this is a scientifically based, most rational way to solve a motor problem.

Motor actions consist of individual movements. However, not all movements in it are equally important. In this regard, a distinction is made between the basis of the movement technique, the main (leading) link and the details of the technique.

Basics of the technique – This is a set of movements that are relatively unchanged and sufficient to solve a motor task.

For example, in high jumps using the “stepping” method, the basis of the technique will be a gradually accelerating run-up with a certain rhythm of running steps, pushing off with the simultaneous extension of the fly leg, crossing the bar, and landing.

The main (leading) link of technology – This is the most important and decisive part in the technique of this method of performing a motor task.

Performing the leading part of the technique in movements usually occurs in a relatively short period of time and requires large muscle efforts.

Equipment details – these are secondary features of the movement that do not violate its main mechanism (the basis of the technique).

The details of the technique may vary from person to person and depend on their individual characteristics.

The correct use of the individual characteristics of each student characterizes his individual technique. Learning any action begins with studying its basis, where much attention is paid to the main (leading) link of the technique, and then to its details. Physical exercise techniques are constantly being improved and updated, due to:

Increasing demands on the level of physical fitness;

Finding more advanced ways to perform movements;

Increasing the role of science in physical education and sports;

Improving teaching methods;

The emergence of new sports equipment, equipment (for example,

synthetic coverings of running tracks, fiberglass pole - in pole vaulting) and other factors.

Pedagogical criteria for the effectiveness of technology. Pedagogical criteria for the effectiveness of technology are understood as: signs on the basis of which the teacher can determine (evaluate) the degree of compliance of the observed method of performing a motor action with the objectively necessary one. Several criteria are used in pedagogical practice (Ashmarin B.A. 1990). Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages.

1st criterion - the effectiveness of physical exercise (including sports results). Most often used. It is generally accepted that improving technique directly affects the increase in the effectiveness of physical exercise as a whole. However, in reality, the effectiveness of an exercise depends on many reasons, and it can be very difficult to determine the significance of technical readiness among them.

2nd criterion - parameters of standard equipment. Its essence lies in the fact that the parameters of the observed action are compared with the parameters of standard technology. But for this, it is first necessary to determine to what extent the standard technique reflects the typological characteristics of students. When comparing an observed motor action with a standard technique, the teacher is not able to simultaneously assess the effectiveness of all elements of the technique. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention first of all to those technical parameters that are decisive.

3rd criterion - the difference between the actual result and the possible one. To use the criterion you must:

1) determine the best result that the student shows in the studied motor action;

2) know the level of development of which motor abilities primarily determines the effectiveness in a given action;

3) through testing, identify the student’s level of development of these particular abilities;

5) determine the difference between the student’s actual result (point 1) and the possible one (point 4).

If the actual result turns out to be higher than possible, then the performance technique fully realizes the potential of the student’s physical abilities; if it is lower, it does not realize it. In the first case, it is necessary to improve motor abilities, in the second, to improve technique. The most difficult thing in using this criterion is determining the possible result for given physical abilities. This is done using regression equations (the methodology for the corresponding calculations is disclosed in the course “Sports Metrology”).

Phases of physical exercise. There are three phases in a physical exercise: preparatory, main (leading) and final (final).

Preparatory phase designed to create the most favorable conditions for fulfilling the main task of the action. For example, in running jumps the preparatory phase is the run-up, in standing jumps - bending the legs and swinging the arms before take-off.

Main phase consists of movements (or movements) with the help of which the main task of the action is solved. For example, in standing jumps - repulsion and flight.

Final phase completes the action, figuratively speaking, allows you to exit the working state. For example, in jumping this phase will be landing, in running - running by inertia after the finish. The effectiveness of the final phase sometimes depends on the correct execution of movements in the main phase (for example, landing in a long jump - from flight), and the effectiveness of a physical exercise as a whole - on the correct execution of the final phase (for example, landing after jumping off a gymnastic apparatus).

The main phase is carried out with the help of movements that form the basis of the technique, and the other two phases are carried out with the help of movements that make up the details of the technique.

Biomechanical characteristics of movements. There are spatial, temporal, spatio-temporal and dynamic characteristics of movements.

Spatial characteristics. These include the position of the body and its parts (initial, intermediate and final position during the movement), the trajectory of movement (shape, direction, amplitude).

From starting position The effectiveness of subsequent actions largely depends. For example, bending the legs and swinging the arms before taking off in standing jumps largely determines the effectiveness of subsequent actions (take-off and flight) and the final result.

Intermediate positions (posture during the exercise). The effectiveness of many physical exercises depends not only on the starting position prior to the start of movements, but also on maintaining the most advantageous posture of the body or any of its parts during the movement itself. For example, maintaining a stationary body posture when shooting standing in biathlon is one of the most important characteristics of the technique that directly affects shooting performance. The low seating position of a skater, alpine skier, and the horizontal position of a swimmer reduces the resistance of the external environment and thereby entails an increase in speed of movement.

End positions in individual physical exercises also play an important role. For example, landing after dismounting from an apparatus in gymnastics or ski jumping. Correct body position in them allows you to maintain stability when landing and avoid injury. There are types of motor actions in which the final position of the body does not affect the result. Let's say the player's posture after passing the ball in football.

The trajectory of movement is the path taken by one or another part (point) of the body in space. The trajectory of movement is characterized by shape, direction and amplitude.

Form trajectories can be rectilinear or curvilinear.

Straight-line movements are extremely rare in practice. This is explained by the fact that movements in individual joints (arms, legs, etc.) are rotational in nature. Therefore, curvilinear trajectories of movements are most natural for humans. The shape of the trajectory can be used to judge the effectiveness of the physical exercise technique.

Direction movement is a change in the position of the body and its parts in space, relative to any plane (frontal, sagittal, horizontal) or any external landmark (the participant’s own body, partner, sports equipment, etc.). There are directions: main (up-down, forward-backward, right-left) and intermediate (forward-upward, forward-downward, etc.).

These directions are used to characterize both translational and rotational movements. The direction of movements plays an important role in ensuring high accuracy of the actions performed, saving energy, gaining time, including the necessary muscle groups in (or excluding from it) the necessary muscle groups, creating more favorable or unfavorable conditions in the activity of the respiratory and circulatory organs.

Even small deviations in the direction of movements, for example among fencers, boxers, and basketball players, lead to the fact that they do not achieve the final goal in their actions.

Amplitude movement is the magnitude of the path of movement of individual parts of the body relative to each other or the axis of the sports equipment. The amplitude of movements is measured in angular degrees or in linear measures. It is often determined relative to the position of other parts of the body or relative to some external landmarks.

The amplitude of movement of individual parts of the human body depends on the structure of the joints and the elasticity of the ligamentous apparatus and muscles. The magnitude of the amplitude affects the completeness of muscle contraction or stretching, the speed of body movement, the accuracy of movement, etc. Thus, in shot put, lengthening the path of the force acting on the projectile leads to an increase in the speed of the projectile. Therefore, the thrower is recommended to perform his movements with the maximum amplitude possible.

Temporal characteristics. These include the duration of movements and tempo.

Movement duration is the time spent on its implementation. In the technique of physical exercise, the duration of individual parts, phases, cycles, elements of movements or movements of individual parts of the body is of great importance. Practical achievements in many motor actions depend on the duration. The duration of the exercise generally determines the magnitude of its impact (load).

Movement speed- this is the frequency of relatively uniform repetition of any movements, for example, steps in running, strokes in rowing, etc.

Tempo is determined by the number of repeated movements per unit of time, usually one minute. So, tempo 120 in walking is equal to 120 steps per minute. The speed of body movement in cyclic exercises (walking, running, swimming, etc.) depends on it. The amount of load in the exercise is also directly dependent on the tempo.

Finding the optimal tempo is one of the main tasks when mastering the technique of cyclic exercises. The optimal pace of movement for each participant in a specific cyclic exercise is determined by repeatedly covering distance segments with different frequencies of movement.

Spatiotemporal characteristics - This speed And acceleration. They determine the nature of the movement of the body and its parts in space. The speed of movements determines their frequency (tempo), the amount of load during the exercise, the result of many motor actions (walking, running, jumping, throwing, etc.).

Travel speed is the ratio of the length of the path traveled by the body (or some part of the body) to the time spent on this path

If the speed of movement is constant, then such movement is called uniform, and if it changes, it is called uneven. The change in speed per unit time is called acceleration. It can be positive, having the same direction with the speed - the speed increases, and negative, having the direction opposite to the direction of the speed - the speed decreases.

The concept of speed of movement should not be identified with the concept of speed of movement.

The speed of movement depends not only on the speed of the corresponding movements, but also on other factors. For example, in running - on the length and frequency of steps, air resistance, etc. The speed of movements plays a very significant role in ensuring the effectiveness of the motor actions performed. So, the throw range depends on the speed of the thrower’s movements, especially at the moment the projectile takes off.

Dynamic characteristics. They reflect the interaction of internal and external forces in the process of movement. The internal forces are:

Active forces of the musculoskeletal system - muscle traction forces;

Passive forces of the musculoskeletal system - elastic muscle forces, muscle viscosity, etc.;

Reactive forces are reflected forces arising from the interaction of body parts during movement.

Internal forces, in particular the force of muscle traction, ensure the preservation and direction of changes in the relative position of the links of the human body. Through muscle traction, a person controls movements using external and internal forces. Internal forces cannot move a body in space without interacting with external forces.

External forces consist of:

Gravity forces of one's own body;

Ground reaction forces;

Friction and resistance forces of the external environment (water, air, snow), external burden, inertial forces of bodies moved by humans.

Rhythmic characteristic is defined as the proportionality in time of strong, accentuated movements associated with active muscle efforts and tensions, and weak, relatively passive movements.

Rhythm is a complex characteristic that reflects a certain relationship between individual parts, periods, phases, elements of any physical exercise in terms of effort, in time and space.

The rhythm of movements is inherent in both repeated (cyclic) and single (acyclic) motor actions. Rhythm is usually determined by measuring the ratio of the duration of any phases that are characteristic of a given physical exercise.

Rhythm unites all elements of technique into a single whole and is the most important integral feature of the technique of motor action.

Individual qualitative characteristics of a person’s motor capabilities are expressed in various motor actions. They are called motor, or physical qualities.

The following physical qualities are distinguished: strength, speed, endurance, flexibility And agility. In work, everyday life, and sports, they do not appear in isolation, but in organic connections with each other. At the same time, in each motor action or in the form of muscular activity, one or more qualities are manifested to the greatest extent (for example, in exercises with weights it is strength, and in a number of such long-term aerobic exercises as cycling, running, swimming and etc. - endurance). Therefore, the leading or leading physical qualities in each individual sport are often noted, and it is this quality (or these qualities) that is trained more thoroughly.

Physical qualities should not be confused with physical abilities, which include, for example, jumping ability, accuracy, etc. and which in turn are derived from 5 physical qualities.

There is also no physical quality “speed”, which is often used in literature and practice. Speed ​​is already a derivative result of physical qualities. For example, in the 100m and 10,000m runs, the maximum possible running speed is required. Only in the 100m race the leading physical qualities for achieving maximum speed will be strength and speed, and in the 10000m race – endurance.

In the process of manifestation of motor qualities, individual organs and functional systems of the body are involved to the greatest extent. Their functional state determines the degree of development of a particular quality. Adaptation occurs under the influence of physical exercise (adaptation) to muscle activity, which is expressed in the functional restructuring of many body systems. Those body systems that were involved in specific muscle activity to a greater extent adapt more significantly. Thus, endurance work mainly develops the circulatory and respiratory organs; strength exercises lead to changes in the chemical composition and thickening of muscle fibers. Let us consider in more detail the physical qualities of a person.

Force- this is a person’s ability to overcome external resistance or counteract it through muscle effort.

The strength of each muscle depends on the nature of the nerve impulses that ensure its contraction, and on the amount of contractile protein found in the muscles. Increasing the frequency of nerve impulses sent to the muscle, as well as the synthesis of contractile protein, are ways to strengthen the muscle.

The physiological basis for the development of strength is:

Participation in muscle contraction of as many motor units as possible;

Thickening of muscle fibers, improving their structure and biochemical processes;

Relaxation of antagonist muscles and preliminary stretching of synergist muscles;

Increased consistency in the activity of synergistic muscles.

White (fast) muscle fibers are responsible for strength, and red (slow) muscle fibers are responsible for endurance.

Strength is trained (developed, nurtured) for a relatively long time, but it is also maintained for a relatively long time. Contrary to endurance, which quickly trains, but also quickly “disappears”.

It should be noted that the term “development” of physical quality, in this case, is appropriate only during periods of growth of the organism, i.e. from birth until stabilization (approximately 18-22 years, depends individually). In principle, any physical quality develops on its own (even without special external influences in the form of physical exercises) precisely as it is inherent in a person by nature (at the genetic level) in the course of his elementary motor actions in the process of life.

If we purposefully influence the body through physical exercise, then this is called the education of a physical quality or several qualities.

The greatest increase in strength, i.e. its development occurs at approximately 14-17 years of age. It is during this age period that it is necessary to pay special attention to this physical quality, i.e. together with its development (natural growth), use the training process, i.e. cultivate this quality.

A distinction is made between maximum and relative strength. The latter indicates the maximum weight lifted per unit of body weight.

The main exercises for building strength are exercises with your own body weight and exercises with additional weights (barbells, weights, dumbbells, exercise machines, etc.).

Depending on the weight and, accordingly, the number of repetitions, the direction of strength work is modeled - the development of maximum strength itself, work on muscle mass (athletics) or even endurance (with relatively small weights with a sufficiently large number of repetitions). Therefore, bodybuilders will have one training program, and strength athletes (powerlifting) will have a completely different one.

Rapidity is a person’s ability to perform a single motor action in a minimum period of time.

A single action is meant in running or swimming, like one step or stroke, i.e. again, this should not be confused with the speed or frequency (tempo) of movements.

This quality is based on a special coordination of processes in the neuromuscular system, which ensures a rapid increase in excitation processes in the nerve centers and mobilization of muscle contraction functions in minimal periods of time. Speed ​​also depends on precise coordination of movements, ensuring contraction of only the necessary muscle groups and their rapid relaxation, as well as optimal replacement of motor units in each of the working muscles.

Distinguish elementary And complex forms manifestations of speed.

Elementary forms include latent(hidden) time motor reaction (the period of time between the action of the stimulus and the onset of movement), single movement time And pace of movement.

Complex forms of speed are manifested in the form of swimming, running, etc. at sprinting distances, throwing, etc. in wrestling, striking in boxing, etc.

The physiological basis for the development of speed are:

Increasing the speed of excitation in nerve centers;

Increasing the rate of muscle relaxation;

Synchronization of excitation of muscle units and their individual fibers;

Increased lability of the corresponding motor units and the speed of propagation of excitation along nerve and muscle fibers;

Increasing the rate of muscle fiber shortening.

The main means of developing speed are exercises at a high and variable pace, acceleration over short periods.

The greatest increase in speed occurs at approximately 9-10 and 15-17 years.

Endurance- this is the body’s ability to perform work of a given power for a relatively long time without reducing its efficiency.

When performing cyclic exercises, endurance is inextricably linked with the function of respiration (primarily tissue), blood circulation (ensuring the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to tissues and the removal of waste products), excretion and thermoregulation.

The physiological basis for increasing endurance are:

The degree of development of the respiratory and circulatory organs (diffusion rate of O 2 and CO 2 through the olveolar membrane, minute volume of respiration, systolic and minute blood volumes);

Blood oxygen capacity;

Reserves of energy substances in the body and the possibility of their use;

Power of aerobic and anaerobic processes;

Capacity of buffer systems and volume of alkaline blood reserves;

Coordination of motor and autonomic functions;

Speed ​​of activation of neurohumoral mechanisms
regulation of homeostasis;

Features of thermoregulation.

In sports, a distinction is made between general (non-athlete-specific) endurance and special (specific, i.e., corresponding to competitive work) endurance.

For physical education, as noted earlier, there is no concept of specificity, therefore, using the term “general” or “special” endurance in relation to any exercise does not make sense.

At the same time, the intensity and duration of physical work imply some differences. This applies to both sports and physical education. There is aerobic endurance (the body's ability to perform strenuous muscular work in conditions of adequate oxygen supply, due to aerobic energy sources) and anaerobic endurance (the body's ability to perform strenuous muscular work in conditions of inadequate oxygen supply, due to anaerobic energy sources).

In scientific and methodological literature and in practice, the terms “strength endurance”, “speed endurance”, “speed-strength endurance”, etc. are often used, which is somewhat incorrect, although the authors are trying to find an explanation for this. For example, “speed” is the ability to perform a motor action for a long time and effectively at a high, often maximum or near maximum speed, strength - with sufficient effort (sometimes they even indicate what kind of effort - more than 40% of the maximum), etc.

The main indicators of endurance are the power of physical work and its duration. Therefore, it is more logical to subdivide endurance depending on these indicators or sources of energy supply, for example, as noted above, aerobic and anaerobic, or in more detail - aerobic, glycolytic, alactic.

The main exercises for developing endurance are cyclic exercises - walking, running, swimming, rowing. The duration and intensity of the exercise will determine how much endurance is developed. In low power zones, this is aerobic endurance, usually long, steady exercise.

Exercises of an acyclic nature (that is, non-repeating cycles of motor action at regular intervals) can also develop endurance: games, wrestling, boxing, etc.

The greatest increase in endurance occurs at approximately 8-10 and 15-17 years.

Dexterity- a person’s ability to master new motor actions in a relatively short period of time, to perform complex coordinated movements when the dynamics of their execution change and in changing environmental conditions.

Agility depends mainly on the integrated development of strength, speed and endurance. The constantly changing environment in some activities places high demands on the speed of information processing in the central nervous system, which comes from sensory systems, and on the speed of programming response movements. As a result of training to develop dexterity, the mobility of nervous processes increases and ensures faster inclusion of various muscles in work and rapid transitions from contraction to relaxation.

The physiological basis of agility is coordination conditioned reflex mechanisms formed under conditions of constant corrections due to the influence of the conditions for performing certain exercises. This quality is upset due to fatigue, and therefore its preservation requires the development of endurance.

Dexterity is a complex motor quality, the level of development of which is determined by many factors. The most important are highly developed muscle sense and the so-called plasticity of cortical nervous processes. The degree of manifestation of the latter determines the urgency of the formation of coordination connections and the speed of transition from one set of attitudes and reactions to another.

The main difference between the means used to develop dexterity - physical exercises - in comparison with others is their increased coordination complexity . They must certainly include elements of novelty, because... Any motor action mastered to the point of skill and performed under the same constant conditions does not stimulate further development of coordination abilities.

The widest and most accessible group of means for developing agility consists of dynamic gymnastic exercises, which simultaneously cover the main muscle groups. These are exercises without objects and with objects (balls, sticks, jump ropes, clubs, etc.), relatively simple and quite complex, performed in changed conditions, in different positions of the body or its parts in different directions: elements of acrobatics (somersaults, various rolls and etc.), balance exercises.

Mastering effective techniques of natural movements has a great influence on the development of agility: running, various jumps (long, height and depth, vault), throwing, climbing.

To develop the ability to quickly and expediently rearrange motor activity in connection with a suddenly changing situation, highly effective means are outdoor and sports games, martial arts (wrestling, boxing, fencing).

A special group of means consists of exercises with a primary focus on individual psychophysiological functions that provide control and regulation of motor actions. These are exercises to develop a sense of space, time, and the degree of muscle effort developed.

The greatest increase in agility occurs at approximately 9-12 years of age.

Flexibility- the ability to perform movements with the maximum possible amplitude. Flexibility depends on the following factors:

Anatomical features of the joints;

Elasticity of the ligamentous apparatus, muscle tendons and muscles;

The ability to combine relaxation and contraction (tension) of antagonist muscles in the joints.

The main means of developing flexibility are stretching exercises, which can be dynamic (springy, swinging, etc.) and static (maintaining maximum amplitude in various poses) of a nature.

The greatest increase in flexibility occurs at approximately 6-8 years.

Thus, the development of flexibility is associated with an increase in the elasticity of muscles, muscle joints and ligaments, with improved coordination of the work of antagonist muscles and, with long-term exercise, with a change in the shape of the articulating bone surfaces.

In the process of systematic physical exercise, all motor qualities develop. In the process of improving one of the qualities, the others are also improved to some extent, because Physical qualities are characterized by the commonality of certain mechanisms of their development. This phenomenon is called positive transfer of motor qualities. At the beginning of regular training sessions, it manifests itself to the greatest extent. Endurance exercise has the most beneficial effect on all motor qualities, and therefore it is considered as the basis for the development of all other qualities.

The effect of physical exercise depends significantly on the biomechanical characteristics of individual movements. There are kinematic characteristics (spatial, temporal, spatio-temporal), dynamic characteristics (internal and external forces), rhythmic and generalized (qualitative) characteristics. (These characteristics are described in detail in the course on the biomechanics of physical exercises).

Spatial characteristics

Includes body position, trajectory (path) of movement.

Body position. Whatever motor action a person performs, he must give his body a certain position in space. There are initial, intermediate, and final positions of the body.

The starting position is taken in order to create the most favorable conditions for the start of subsequent actions, better orientation in the environment, maintaining stability, ensuring freedom of movement, appropriate impact on certain organs and systems of the body. The low start of an athlete, the stance of a boxer, or a goalkeeper are an external expression of readiness for action. All these poses can be attributed to those states that Academician A.A. Ukhtomsky called it “operational rest”. Although there are no external movements in them, nowhere is the unity of the concentrated purposefulness of the body so clearly manifested as in these postures introductory to movement.

Intermediate position. The effectiveness of many physical exercises depends not only on the starting position, but also on maintaining the most advantageous position of the body or its parts during the movement itself. Thus, the low position of a skater reduces the resistance of the external environment, which entails an increase in speed of movement.

Final position. In certain physical exercises, the final positions play a big role. For example, landing in ski jumping. But there are motor actions in which the final position of the body does not affect the result. For example, the posture of a basketball player after passing the ball.

The trajectory of movement is the path taken by one or another part of the body in space. The trajectory of movement is characterized by shape, direction, amplitude.

The shape of the trajectory can be rectilinear or curvilinear. Straight-line movements are extremely rare in practice and are used when it is necessary to develop the highest speed of any part of the body in a short distance (a thrust in fencing, a blow in boxing). Curvilinear movements are much more common and their complexity

The strength depends on the moving mass of the body: the larger it is, the simpler the shape and vice versa. For example, in the area of ​​the hip joint there are more muscles, they are located more diversely, but still the movements of the leg are poorer than those of the arm.

Direction is a change in the position of the body and its parts in space, relative to any plane (frontal, sagittal, horizontal) or some external landmark (partner, sports equipment). There are main directions (up-down, forward-backward, right-left) and intermediate ((forward-upward, forward-downward, etc.)

The direction of movements plays an important role in ensuring high precision of the actions performed, saving effort, gaining time, and more or less favorable conditions in the activity of the respiratory and circulatory organs. Even small deviations in the direction of movements, for example among boxers, basketball players, and football players, lead to the fact that they do not achieve the final goal in their actions.

The amplitude of movement is the magnitude of the path of movement of body parts (L.P. Matveev defines amplitude as “the range of movements”). It is measured in angular degrees, in linear measures (step length), symbols (half squat, splits) or external reference points (on

bend over, reach for your toes). The amplitude depends on the structure of bones, joints, elasticity of ligaments and muscles, and its magnitude affects the speed of body movement, the completeness of muscle stretching, the accuracy of movement, etc.

Movements of large amplitude are usually called sweeping, and movements of small amplitude are called small. If the amplitude of movements does not correspond to the motor task being solved, then they are called inaccurate.

In many motor actions, the maximum anatomically possible amplitude is, as a rule, not used. The desire to excessively increase the range of motion can lead to injuries to the joint-ligamentous apparatus and muscles.

Timing characteristics

Temporal characteristics of movements include duration and tempo of movement.

Movement duration is the time spent performing the movement. In the technique of physical exercise, the duration of its individual parts (start, turn, finish in swimming), phases (swing, hit in volleyball), cycles (sliding steps in skating), elements of movements is of great importance. The duration of each of the above components of the exercise can change and determine the result.

The tempo of movements is the frequency of relatively uniform repetition of any movements (cycles). With single movements (jumping, throwing), the tempo is naturally not observed.

The pace of movements is inversely proportional to their duration: the shorter the duration, the higher the pace. For example, a decrease in the duration of a step in skating at a certain distance leads to an increase in the frequency of steps.

The concepts of “tempo” and “speed” of movements should not be equated, although often (but not always) the speed of movement depends on the tempo and vice versa. For example, in running, with increasing tempo (with the same length of steps), the speed of movements in each step inevitably increases, but

If, simultaneously with an increase in tempo, the length of steps decreases, then the speed of movements can remain unchanged.

The rate of movement depends on the mass or moments of inertia of the moving body.

Thus, when moving your fingers, you can maintain a higher tempo than when moving your torso. With a change in tempo, the entire structure of the movement often qualitatively changes. So, if the pace rises above certain limits, normal walking turns into running.

Spatiotemporal characteristics

Speed ​​of movement - This is the ratio of the length of the path traveled by the body (or some part of the body) to the time spent on this path.

When determining speed in translational motion, it is usually measured in meters per second (linear speed), and in rotational motion, in radians per second (angular speed).

If the speed of movement is constant, then such movement is called uniform, and if it changes, it is called uneven.

Acceleration is the change in speed per unit time. It can be positive (speed increases) or negative (speed decreases).

The concept of “movement speed” should not be identified with the concept of “movement speed”. The speed of movement depends not only on the speed of the corresponding movements, but also on other factors (step frequency in running, air resistance in skating).

When performing cyclic exercises (running, swimming, rowing, etc.) in competitive conditions, the ability to accurately maintain a pre-planned speed is of great importance. This allows you to expediently distribute your strength over a distance and determine the moment of fatigue. The ability to control the speed of movements is called the “sense of speed.”

Strength characteristics In practice, the concept of “movement strength” is used to describe the strength characteristics of movements.

Motion force - This is a measure of the physical impact of a moving part of the body (or the whole body) on any material objects, for example, the soil (when running, jumping, etc.), any objects (when lifting, throwing, etc.).

The concept of “movement force” is a general one. Although force depends on the applied muscle effort, it should not be identified with muscle strength.

The force of human movement is the result of the combined interaction of internal and external forces. Knowledge of the forces acting on a person makes it easier to understand the technique of physical exercise and find its effective options.

The internal forces are:

o active forces of the musculoskeletal system - muscle traction forces;

o passive forces of the musculoskeletal system - elastic muscle forces, muscle viscosity, etc.;

o reactive forces - reflected forces arising from the interaction of body parts during movement.

External forces are:

about the gravity of your own body;

o ground reaction forces;

o resistance forces of the external environment.

When mastering the technique of motor actions, one must strive for the fullest possible use of all driving forces while simultaneously reducing the braking forces.

Rhythmic characteristic

One of the integral characteristics of movement technique is

RHYTHM is the proportionality of the elements of movement in terms of effort, in time and in space (L.P. Matveev, 1976).

RHYTHM - the proportionality in time of strong accentuated movements associated with active muscle efforts and tensions, and weak, relatively passive movements.

The motor rhythm is characterized by a different time ratio of strong, accentuated parts of movement associated with active muscle efforts and tensions, and weak, passive phases of movement. All these moments are present in any holistic motor act.

The rhythm of movements is inherent in both repeated (cyclic) and single (acyclic) motor actions. Rhythm is usually determined by measuring the phases that are characteristic of a given physical exercise. For example, the rhythm in skating is expressed by the rhythm coefficient, which is equal to the ratio of the time of repulsion to the time of free gliding, in running - the ratio of the support time to the flight time.

The change in rhythm during physical exercise is influenced by external conditions and the state of the practitioner. For example, when skiing with an alternating two-step stroke in poor sliding conditions, some restructuring occurs in the nature of the temporal relationships of the phases of movements in the cycle - the duration of the rest phases decreases and the duration of the working phases increases. Such variability in the rhythm of movements ensures that the speed of movement is maintained in poor sliding conditions.

Generalized (qualitative) characteristics

Along with characteristics that have a fairly accurate quantitative measure, qualitative characteristics are used when analyzing technology. When performing a motor action, the qualitative characteristics reflect not one particular sign, but a complex of them. They give the movement a certain originality, a brighter external expressiveness. With a certain degree of convention, the following generalized qualitative characteristics of technology can be distinguished:

smoothness, precision, economy, undulation, springiness, angularity, tension, lightness, softness.

These qualitative characteristics of technology are usually assessed by their external manifestations and can be controlled without the use of complex instrumental devices.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT is a natural process of age-related changes in the morphological and functional properties of the human body during his life.

The term “physical development” is used in two meanings:

1) as a process occurring in the human body during natural age-related development and under the influence of physical culture;

2) as a state, i.e. as a complex of signs characterizing the morphofunctional state of the organism, the level of development of physical abilities necessary for the life of the organism.

Features of physical development are determined using anthropometry.

ANTHROPOMETRIC INDICATORS is a complex of morphological and functional data that characterizes age and gender characteristics of physical development.

The following anthropometric indicators are distinguished:

Somatometric;

Physiometric;

Somatoscopic.

Somatometric indicators include:

· Height– body length.

The greatest body length is observed in the morning. In the evening, as well as after intense physical exercise, height may decrease by 2 cm or more. After exercises with weights and a barbell, height may decrease by 3-4 cm or more due to compaction of the intervertebral discs.

· Weight– it would be more correct to say “body weight”.

Body weight is an objective indicator of health status. It changes during physical exercise, especially in the initial stages. This occurs as a result of the release of excess water and the combustion of fat. Then the weight stabilizes, and later, depending on the focus of the training, it begins to decrease or increase. It is advisable to monitor body weight in the morning on an empty stomach.

To determine normal weight, various weight-height indices are used. In particular, in practice they widely use Broca's index, according to which normal body weight is calculated as follows:

For people 155-165 cm tall:

optimal weight = body length – 100

For people 165-175 cm tall:

optimal weight = body length – 105

For people 175 cm tall and above:

optimal weight = body length – 110

More accurate information about the relationship between physical weight and body constitution is provided by a method that, in addition to height, also takes into account chest circumference:

· Circles– volumes of the body in its various zones.

Usually the circumferences of the chest, waist, forearm, shoulder, hip, etc. are measured. A centimeter tape is used to measure body circumference.

Chest circumference is measured in three phases: during normal quiet breathing, maximum inhalation and maximum exhalation. The difference between the sizes of the circles during inhalation and exhalation characterizes the chest excursion (ECC). The average EGC size usually ranges from 5-7 cm.

Circumference of waist, hips, etc. are used, as a rule, to control the figure.

· Diameters– the width of the body in its various zones.

Physiometric indicators include:

· Vital capacity of the lungs (VC)- the volume of air obtained during the maximum exhalation made after the maximum inhalation.

Vital vital capacity is measured with a spirometer: having previously taken 1-2 breaths, the subject takes a maximum breath and smoothly blows air into the mouthpiece of the spirometer until it fails. The measurement is carried out 2-3 times in a row, the best result is recorded.

Average vital capacity indicators:

For men 3500-4200 ml,

In women 2500-3000 ml,

Athletes have 6000-7500 ml.

To determine the optimal vital capacity of a particular person, it is used Ludwig's equation:

Men: due vital capacity = (40xL)+(30xP) – 4400

Women: due vital capacity = (40xL)+(10xP) – 3800

where L is height in cm, P is weight in kg.

For example, for a girl 172 cm tall and weighing 59 kg, the optimal vital capacity is: (40 x 172) + (10 x 59) – 3800 = 3670 ml.

· Breathing rate– the number of complete respiratory cycles per unit of time (for example, per minute).

The normal respiratory rate of an adult is 14-18 times per minute. Under load it increases 2-2.5 times.

· Oxygen consumption- the amount of oxygen used by the body at rest or during exercise in 1 minute.

At rest, a person on average consumes 250-300 ml of oxygen per minute. With physical activity this value increases.

The greatest amount of oxygen that the body can consume per minute during maximum muscular work is called maximum oxygen consumption (IPC).

· Dynamometry– determination of the flexion strength of the hand.

The flexion force of the hand is determined by a special device - a dynamometer, measured in kg.

Right-handers have average strength values right hand:

For men 35-50 kg;

For women 25-33 kg.

Average strength values left hand usually 5-10 kg less.

When doing dynamometry, it is important to take into account both absolute and relative strength, i.e. correlated with body weight.

To determine relative strength, arm strength is multiplied by 100 and divided by body weight.

For example, a young man weighing 75 kg showed a right hand strength of 52 kg:

52 x 100 / 75 = 69.33%

Average relative strength indicators:

In men, 60-70% of body weight;

In women, 45-50% of body weight.

Somatoscopic indicators include:

· Posture- the usual pose of a casually standing person.

At correct posture in a well-physically developed person, the head and torso are on the same vertical, the chest is raised, the lower limbs are straightened at the hip and knee joints.

At incorrect posture the head is slightly tilted forward, the back is hunched, the chest is flat, the stomach is protruded.

· Body type– characterized by the width of skeletal bones.

The following are distinguished: body types: asthenic (narrow-boned), normosthenic (normal-boned), hypersthenic (broad-boned).

· Chest shape

The following are distinguished: chest shapes: conical (the epigastric angle is greater than the right angle), cylindrical (the epigastric angle is straight), flattened (the epigastric angle is less than the right angle).

Figure 3. Shapes of the chest:

a - conical;

b - cylindrical;

c - flattened;

α - epigastric angle

The conical shape of the chest is typical for people who do not engage in sports.

The cylindrical shape is more common among athletes.

A flattened chest is observed in adults who lead a sedentary lifestyle. Individuals with a flattened chest may have decreased respiratory function.

Physical exercise helps increase the volume of the chest.

· Back shape

The following are distinguished: back shapes: normal, round, flat.

An increase in the curvature of the spine backward relative to the vertical axis by more than 4 cm is called kyphosis, forward - lordosis.

Normally, there should also be no lateral curvatures of the spine - scoliosis. Scoliosis is right-, left-sided and S-shaped.

One of the main causes of spinal curvature is insufficient motor activity and general functional weakness of the body.

· Leg shape

The following are distinguished: leg shapes: normal, X-shaped, O-shaped.

development of bones and muscles of the lower extremities.

· Foot shape

The following are distinguished: foot shapes: hollow, normal, flattened, flat.

Rice. 6. Foot Shapes:

a – hollow

b – normal

c – flattened

g – flat

The shape of the feet is determined by external examination or by foot prints.

· Belly shape

The following are distinguished: belly shapes: normal, saggy, retracted.

A saggy abdomen is usually caused by poor development of the abdominal wall muscles, which is accompanied by prolapse of the internal organs (intestines, stomach, etc.).

A retracted abdomen occurs in people with well-developed muscles and little fat deposits.

· Fat deposition

Distinguish: normal, increased and decreased fat deposition. Besides, determine uniformity and local fat deposition.

produce measured compression of the fold, which is important for measurement accuracy.