Culture and Education

Print page

The history of Japan as such begins to take on certain forms only at the end of the 5th century. Relatively few objects dating back to previous centuries (the Archaic period) have been discovered, although some finds made during excavations or during construction work indicate remarkable artistic talent.

Archaic period. The oldest works of Japanese art clay pots of the jomon type (cord impression). The name comes from the decoration of the surface with spiral impressions of cord wrapped around the sticks that the craftsman used to make the vessel. Perhaps at first the craftsmen accidentally discovered the braided prints, but then they began to use them deliberately. Sometimes cord-like clay curls were stuck onto the surface, creating a more complex decorative effect, almost a relief. The first Japanese sculpture arose in the Jomon culture. Dogu (lit. "clay image") of a person or animal probably had some religious significance. The images of people, mostly women, are very similar to the clay goddesses of other primitive cultures.

Radiocarbon dating suggests that some finds from the Jomon culture may date back to 6-5 thousand BC, but dating so early is not generally accepted. Of course, such dishes were made over a long period of time, and although exact dating cannot yet be established, three periods can be distinguished. The oldest examples have a pointed base and are almost unornamented, except for traces of a potter's tool. The vessels of the middle period are more richly ornamented, sometimes with molded elements, creating the impression of volume. The shapes of the vessels of the third period are very diverse, but the decoration again flattens and becomes more restrained.

Around the 2nd century. BC. Jomon ceramics gave way to Yayoi ceramics, characterized by graceful forms, simplicity of design and high technical quality. The vessel sherd became thinner and the ornament less fancy. This type prevailed until the 3rd century. AD

From an artistic point of view, perhaps the best works of the early period are the haniwa, clay cylinders dating from the 3rd to 5th centuries. AD Characteristic monuments of this era are huge hills, or mounds, burial structures of emperors and powerful nobility. Often very large in size, they are evidence of the power and wealth of the imperial family and courtiers. The construction of such a structure for Emperor Nintoku-tenno (c. 395427 AD) took 40 years. The most notable feature of these mounds was the clay cylinders, haniwa, surrounding them like a fence. Usually these cylinders were completely simple, but sometimes they were decorated with human figures, less often with figurines of horses, houses or roosters. Their purpose was twofold: to prevent the erosion of huge masses of land and to supply the deceased with the necessities that he used in earthly life. Naturally, the cylinders were produced in large quantities at once. The variety of themes, facial expressions and gestures of the figures decorating them is largely the result of the master’s improvisation. Despite the fact that they are the works of artisans rather than painters and sculptors, they are of great importance as a Japanese art form proper. The buildings, blanketed horses, prim ladies and warriors present an interesting picture of the military life of early feudal Japan. It is possible that prototypes of these cylinders appeared in China, where various items They were placed directly into burials, but the execution and method of using haniwa belong to the local tradition.

The Archaic period is often seen as a time devoid of works of high artistic level, a time of dominance of things of mainly archaeological and ethnological value. It must be remembered, however, that the works of this early culture as a whole had great vitality, since their forms survived and continued to exist as specific national features of Japanese art in later periods.

Asuka period(552710 AD). Introduction of Buddhism in the mid-6th century. made significant changes in the way of life and thinking of the Japanese and became an impetus for the development of art of this and subsequent periods. The arrival of Buddhism from China via Korea is traditionally dated to 552 AD, but it was probably known earlier. In the early years, Buddhism faced political opposition, with opposition from the national religion Shinto, but just a few decades later the new faith received official approval and was finally established. In the early years of its introduction to Japan, Buddhism was a relatively simple religion with a small number of deities that needed images, but after about a hundred years it gained strength and the pantheon grew enormously.

During this period, temples were founded, which served not only the purposes of propagating the faith, but were centers of art and education. The monastery-temple at Horyuji is one of the most important for the study of early Buddhist art. Among other treasures, there is a statue of the great triad Syaka-Nerai (623 AD). This work by Tori Bussi, the first great Japanese sculptor known to us, is a stylized bronze image similar to similar groups in the great cave temples of China. The pose of the seated Shaky (Japanese transcription of the word "Shakyamuni", the historical Buddha) and the two figures standing on either side of him is strictly frontal. The forms of the human figure are hidden by heavy symmetrical folds of schematically rendered clothes, and in the smooth elongated faces one can feel dreamy self-absorption and contemplation. The sculpture of this first Buddhist period is based on the style and prototypes from the mainland fifty years earlier; it faithfully follows the Chinese tradition that came to Japan through Korea.

Some of the most important sculptures of this time were made of bronze, but wood was also used. The two most famous wooden sculptures are statues of the goddess Kannon: Yumedono Kannon and Kudara Kannon, both in Horyuji. They are a more attractive object of worship than the Shaki triad, with their archaic smiles and dreamy expressions. Although the Kannon figures also have a schematic and symmetrical arrangement of folds of clothing, they are lighter and full of movement. Tall, slender figures emphasize the spirituality of the faces, their abstract kindness, distant from all worldly concerns, but sensitive to the prayers of the suffering. The sculptor paid some attention to the contours of the figure of Kudara Kannon, hidden by the folds of clothing, and in contrast to the jagged silhouette of Yumedono, the movement of both figure and fabric is directed into depth. In profile, Kudara Kannon has a graceful S-shaped outline.

The only surviving example of painting that gives an idea of ​​the style of the early 7th century is the painting of Tamamushi Zushi, the “winged sanctuary”. This miniature shrine takes its name from the iridescent beetle wings set into a perforated metal frame; later it was decorated with religious compositions and figures of individual characters made with colored varnish. Like the sculpture of this period, some images show great freedom of design.

Nara period(710784). In 710 the capital was moved to Nara, a new city modeled after the Chinese capital Chang'an. There were wide streets, large palaces, and numerous Buddhist temples. Not only Buddhism in all its aspects, but the entire Chinese cultural and political life was perceived as a model to follow. No other country has perhaps felt more inadequate in its own culture or been so susceptible to outside influences. Scholars and pilgrims moved freely between Japan and the mainland, and government and palace life were modeled after Tang Dynasty China. However, we must remember that, despite imitating the examples of Tang China, especially in art, perceiving its influence and style, the Japanese almost always adapted foreign forms to their own.

In sculpture, the strict frontality and symmetry of the previous Asuka period gave way to freer forms. The development of ideas about the gods, increased technical skill and freedom of use of material allowed artists to create more intimate and accessible cult images. The founding of new Buddhist sects expanded the pantheon to include even the saints and founders of Buddhism. In addition to bronze sculpture, a large number of works made of wood, clay and varnish are known. Stone was rare and almost never used for sculpture. Dry varnish was especially popular, perhaps because, despite the complexity of the process of preparing the composition, works made from it looked more impressive than wooden ones and were stronger than clay products that were easier to make. Lacquer figures were formed on a wooden or clay base, which was then removed, or on wooden or wire reinforcement; they were light and durable. Despite the fact that this technique dictated some rigidity in poses, great freedom was allowed in the depiction of faces, which partially contributed to the development of what can be called portrait sculpture proper. The depiction of the deity's face was performed in accordance with the strict requirements of Buddhist canons, but the popularity and even deification of some of the founders and preachers of the faith provided excellent opportunities for conveying portrait likeness. This similarity can be seen in the sculpture made of dry varnish of the Chinese patriarch Genjin, revered in Japan, located in the Toshodaiji Temple. Genjin was blind when he arrived in Japan in 753, and his sightless eyes and enlightened state of inner contemplation are beautifully captured by the unknown sculptor. This realistic tendency was most clearly expressed in the wooden sculpture of the preacher Kuya, created by the sculptor Kosho in the 13th-14th centuries. The preacher is dressed as a wandering beggar with a staff, gong and mallet, and small Buddha figures emerge from his half-open mouth. Not satisfied with the image of the singing monk, the sculptor made an attempt to express the innermost meaning of his words.

The images of Buddha from the Nara period are also distinguished by great realism. Created for an ever-increasing number of temples, they are not as imperturbably cold and reserved as their predecessors, have a more graceful beauty and nobility, and are addressed with greater favor to the people who worship them.

Very few paintings from this time have survived. The multi-colored design on paper depicts the past and present lives of the Buddha. This is one of the few ancient examples of emakimono, or scroll painting. The scrolls slowly unwound from right to left, and the viewer could only enjoy that part of the picture that was located between the hands unrolling the scroll. The illustrations were placed directly above the text, unlike later scrolls where a section of text alternated with an explanatory image. In these oldest surviving examples of scroll painting, outlined figures are set against a barely outlined landscape, with the central character, in this case Shaka, appearing in various scenes.

Early Heian(784897). In 784 the capital was temporarily moved to Nagaoka, partly to avoid the dominance of Nara's Buddhist clergy. In 794 she moved to Heian (now Kyoto) for a longer period. Late 8th and 9th centuries were a period when Japan successfully assimilated, adapting to its own characteristics, many foreign innovations. The Buddhist religion also experienced a time of change, the emergence of new sects of esoteric Buddhism, with its developed ritual and etiquette. Of these, the most influential were the Tendai and Shingon sects, which originated in India, reached China and from there were brought to Japan by two scientists who returned to their homeland after a long apprenticeship. The Shingon (“True Words”) sect was especially popular at court and quickly assumed a dominant position. Its main monasteries were located on Mount Koya near Kyoto; like other important Buddhist centers, they became repositories of huge collections of art.

9th century sculpture was mostly wooden. The images of deities were distinguished by their severity and inaccessible grandeur, which was emphasized by the solemnity of their appearance and massiveness. Draperies were skillfully cut out according to standard patterns, and scarves lay in waves. The standing figure of Shaki from the Muroji Temple is an example of this style. For this and similar images of the 9th century. characterized by rigid carvings with deeper, crisp folds and other details.

The increase in the number of gods created great difficulties for artists. In complex, map-like mandalas (geometric designs with magical meanings), the deities were arranged in a hierarchy around the central Buddha, who was himself only one manifestation of the absolute. At this time, a new manner of depicting figures of guardian deities surrounded by flames, terrible in appearance, but beneficent in nature, appeared. These deities were located asymmetrically and were depicted in moving poses, with formidable facial features, fiercely defending faith from possible dangers.

Middle and Late Heian, or Fujiwara period(8981185). The transfer of the capital to Heian, which was intended to evade the difficult demands of the clergy, also caused changes in the political system. The nobility was a dominant force, and its most representative representatives were the Fujiwara family. Period 10-12 centuries. often associated with this name. A period of special power began when real emperors were “strongly advised” to leave aside the affairs of the state for the more pleasant pursuits of poetry and painting. Until he came of age, the emperor was led by a strict regent, usually from the Fujiwara family. It was an age of luxury and remarkable achievements in literature, calligraphy and art; There was a languor and emotionality throughout, which rarely reached depth, but on the whole was charming. Elegant sophistication and escapism were reflected in the art of this time. Even adherents of Buddhism were looking for easier ways, and the worship of the heavenly Buddha, Amida, became especially popular. Ideas about the compassion and saving grace of Amida Buddha were deeply reflected in the painting and sculpture of this period. The massiveness and restraint of the 9th century statues. in 10-11 centuries. gave way to bliss and charm. The deities are depicted as dreamy, thoughtfully calm, the carving becomes less deep, the surface becomes more colorful, with a richly developed texture. The most important monuments of this period belong to the sculptor Jocho.

The works of artists also acquired softer features, reminiscent of drawings on fabric, and even the terrible deities and defenders of the faith became less frightening. Sutras (Buddhist texts) were written in gold and silver on deep blue paper, the beautiful calligraphy of the text was often preceded by a small illustration. The most popular strands of Buddhism and their associated deities reflect the preferences of the aristocracy and a gradual shift away from the austere ideals of early Buddhism.

The atmosphere of this time and his works are partly connected with the cessation of formal relations with China in 894. Buddhism in China at this time was persecuted, and the corrupt Tang court was in a state of decline. The secluded island existence that followed this severance encouraged the Japanese to turn to their own culture and develop a new, purer Japanese style. Indeed, secular painting of the 10th-12th centuries. was almost entirely Japanese both in technique and in composition and subjects. A distinctive feature of these Japanese scrolls, called yamato-e, was the predominance of engi (origin, history) subjects. While Chinese scrolls most often depicted vast, amazing nature, panoramas of mountains, streams, rocks and trees, and people seemed relatively insignificant, on Japanese narrative scrolls the main thing in the drawing and text was the person. The landscape played only the role of a background for the story being told, subordinate to the main character or persons. Many scrolls were hand-drawn chronicles of the lives of famous Buddhist preachers or historical figures, their travels and military campaigns. Others told of romantic episodes from the lives of nobles and courtiers.

The apparently distinctive style of the early scrolls came from simple ink sketches on the pages of Buddhist notebooks. These are skillful drawings that caricature human behavior through animal images: a monkey in monastic robes worshiping an inflated frog, competitions between hares, monkeys and frogs. These and other late Heian scrolls served as the basis for the more complex narrative scrolls of the developed style of the 13th-14th centuries.

Kamakura period(11851392). Late 12th century brought major changes to the political and religious life of Japan and, of course, to its art. The elegance and aestheticism of the Kyoto court was replaced or, in the tradition of "special" rule, "received an addition" in the form of a new, harsh and courageous rule of the Kamakura shogunate. Although the capital remained nominally Kyoto, shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo (11471199) established his headquarters in the city of Kamakura and in just 25 years established a rigid system of military dictatorship and feudalism. Buddhism, which had become so complex and ritualized that it was little understood by ordinary lay people, also underwent major changes that did not promise patronage of the arts. The Yodo (Pure Land) sect, a form of veneration of Amida Buddha, under the leadership of Honen Shonin (11331212), reformed the hierarchy of Buddhas and deities and gave hope of salvation to all who simply believed in Amida. This doctrine of an easily attainable paradise was later simplified by another monk, Shinran (11731262), the founder of the Shin sect, who recognized that the condescension of Amida is so great that there is no need to perform religious acts, it is enough to simply repeat the incantation “Namu Amida Butsu” (the first word means “to obey”; the second two are “Buddha Amida”). This simple method of saving the soul was extremely attractive, and is now used by millions. A generation later, the militant preacher Nichiren (1222-1282), after whom the sect is named, abandoned this simplified form of religion. His followers revered the Lotus Sutra, which did not promise instant and unconditional salvation. His sermons often touched on political topics, and his beliefs and proposed reforms of church and state appealed to the new military class in Kamakura. Finally, Zen philosophy, which emerged as early as the 8th century, began to play an increasingly important role in Buddhist thought during this period. Zen emphasized the importance of meditation and disdain for any images that might hinder man in his quest to unite with God.

So, this was a time when religious thought limited the number of works of painting and sculpture previously necessary for the cult. Nevertheless, some of the finest works of Japanese art were created during the Kamakura period. The incentive was the inherent Japanese love of art, but the key to the solution lies in the attitude of the people to new creeds, and not in dogmas as such. Indeed, the works themselves suggest the reason for their creation, because many of these sculptures and paintings full of life and energy are portraits. Although Zen philosophy might consider ordinary religious objects to be an obstacle to enlightenment, the tradition of honoring teachers was quite acceptable. A portrait in itself could not be an object of worship. This attitude towards the portrait was characteristic not only of Zen Buddhism: many ministers of the Pure Land sect were revered almost like Buddhist deities. Thanks to the portrait, a new architectural form even appeared: mieido, or portrait chapel. The rapid development of realism was completely in the spirit of the times.

Although the picturesque portraits of the priests were obviously indeed images of specific people, they were often reworkings of paintings depicting the Chinese founders of Buddhism. They were depicted preaching, their mouths open, their hands gesticulating; sometimes mendicant monks were depicted making a difficult journey for the glory of faith.

One of the most popular subjects was raigo (desired arrival), which depicted Buddha Amida with his companions descending on a cloud to save the soul of a believer on his deathbed and transfer it to heaven. The colors of such images were often enhanced by applied gold, and the wavy lines, flowing capes, and swirling clouds gave a sense of movement to the descent of the Buddha.

Unkei, active in the second half of the 12th and early 13th centuries, was the author of an innovation that facilitated wood carving, which remained the favorite material of sculptors during the Kamakura period. Previously, the master was limited by the size and shape of the log or log from which the figure was cut. The arms and clothing elements were applied separately, but the finished piece often resembled the original cylindrical shape. In the new technique, dozens of small pieces were carefully fitted together to form a hollow pyramid, from which apprentices could then roughly carve out a shape. The sculptor had at his disposal a more pliable material and the ability to create more complex forms. The muscular temple guards and deities in flowing capes and robes seemed more alive also because crystal or glass began to be inserted into their eye sockets; statues began to be decorated with gilded bronze. They became lighter and cracked less often as the wood dried. The aforementioned wooden statue of Kuya Shonin, by Kosho, Unkei's son, demonstrates the highest achievement of Kamakura-era realism in portrait sculpture. Indeed, sculpture at this time reached its apogee in its development, and subsequently it no longer occupied such a prominent place in art.

Secular painting also reflected the spirit of the times. Narrative scrolls of the late Heian period, with restrained colors and graceful lines, told about the romantic escapades of Prince Genji or the entertainments of the reclusive court ladies. Now, with bright colors and energetic brushstrokes, artists of the Kamakura era depicted battles of warring clans, palaces engulfed in flames and frightened people fleeing from attacking troops. Even as religious history unfolded on the scroll, the image was not so much an icon as it was a historical record of the travels of holy men and the miracles they performed. In the design of these scenes one can detect a growing love for nature and admiration for native landscapes.

Muromachi or Ashikaga period(13921568). In 1392, after more than 50 years of strife, the third shogun of the Ashikaga family, Yoshimitsu (1358–1408), reunited the country. The seat of government again became the nominal capital of Kyoto, where the Ashikaga shoguns built their palaces in the Muromachi quarter. (This period is sometimes called Muromachi or Ashikaga.) Wartime did not spare many temples and repositories of Japanese art, which were burned along with the treasures located there. The country was brutally ruined, and even peace did not bring much relief, since the warring clans, achieving success, distributed favors at their whim. It would seem that the situation was extremely unfavorable for the development of art, but in fact the Ashikaga shoguns patronized it, especially in the 15th-16th centuries, when painting flourished.

The most significant artistic phenomenon of this time was the monochrome poetic ink paintings encouraged by Zen Buddhism and influenced by Chinese examples of the Song and Yuan dynasties. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), contacts with China were renewed, and Yoshimitsu, a collector and patron of the arts, encouraged the collecting and study of Chinese paintings. It became a model and starting point for gifted artists who painted landscapes, birds, flowers, images of clergy and sages with light and fluent brush strokes. Japanese painting of this time is characterized by economy of line; the artist seems to extract the quintessence of the depicted plot, allowing the viewer to fill it with details. The transitions of gray and shiny black ink in these paintings are very close to the Zen philosophy, which certainly inspired their authors. Although this belief achieved considerable influence under the military rule of Kamakura, it continued to spread rapidly in the 15th and 16th centuries, when numerous Zen monasteries arose. Preaching mainly the idea of ​​"self-salvation", it did not link salvation to the Buddha, but relied more on a person's severe self-discipline to achieve a sudden intuitive "enlightenment" that unites him with the absolute. The economical but bold use of ink and asymmetrical composition, in which unpainted parts of the paper played a significant role in depictions of idealized landscapes, sages and scientists, were consistent with this philosophy.

One of the most famous exponents of sumi-e, a style of monochrome ink painting, was Sesshu (1420–1506), a Zen priest whose long and fruitful life earned him long-lasting veneration. At the end of his life, he began to use the haboku (quick ink) style, which, in contrast to the mature style, which required clear, economical strokes, brought the tradition of monochrome painting almost to abstraction.

The same period marks the activity of the Kano family of artists and the development of their style. In terms of the choice of subjects and the use of ink, it was close to Chinese, but in terms of expressive means it remained Japanese. Kano, with the support of the shogunate, became the "official" school or artistic style of painting and flourished well into the 19th century.

The naive tradition of Yamato-e continued to live on in the works of the Tosa school, the second important movement of Japanese painting. In fact, at this time both schools, Kano and Tosa, were closely connected, they were united by an interest in modern life. Motonobu Kano (1476-1559), one of the outstanding artists of this period, not only married his daughter to the famous artist Tosa, but also painted in his manner.

In the 15th-16th centuries. Only a few noteworthy works of sculpture appeared. It should be noted, however, that the development of noo drama, with its variety of moods and emotions, opened up a new field of activity for sculptors - they carved masks for actors. In classical Japanese drama, performed by and for the aristocracy, the actors (one or more) wore masks. They conveyed a range of feelings from fear, anxiety and confusion to restrained joy. Some masks were so beautifully carved that the slightest turn of the actor's head caused subtle changes in the expression of feelings. Remarkable examples of these masks were kept for years in the families for whose members they were made.

Momoyama period(15681615). In 1593, the great military dictator Hideyoshi built his castle on Momoyama, “Peach Hill,” and by this name the period of 47 years from the fall of the Ashikaga shogunate to the establishment of the Tokugawa, or Edo, period in 1615 was generally accepted. This was the time of the dominance of an entirely new military class, whose great wealth contributed to the flourishing of art. Impressive castles with vast audience halls and long corridors came into fashion in the late 16th century. and demanded decorations appropriate to their greatness. It was a time of stern and courageous people, and the new patrons, unlike the previous aristocracy, were not particularly interested in intellectual pursuits or the subtleties of craftsmanship. Fortunately, the new generation of artists was quite consistent with their patrons. During this period, wonderful screens and movable panels appeared in bright crimson, emerald, green, purple and blue colors. Such exuberant colors and decorative forms, often on a gold or silver background, were very popular for a hundred years, and their creators were quite rightly called “the great decorators.” Thanks to the subtle Japanese taste, the lush style did not develop into vulgarity, and even when restraint and understatement gave way to luxury and decorative excesses, the Japanese managed to maintain elegance.

Eitoku Kano (15431590), one of the first great artists of this period, worked in the style of Kano and Tosa, expanding the ideas of drawing of the first and combining them with the richness of colors of the second. Although only a few works survive that can be confidently attributed to Eitoku, he is considered one of the founders of the Momoyama style, and most of the artists of this period were his students or were influenced by him.

Edo or Tokugawa period(16151867). The long period of peace that followed the newly united Japan is called either the time of Tokugawa, after the surname of the ruler, or Edo (modern Tokyo), since in 1603 this city became the new center of power. Two famous generals of the short Momoyama period, Oda Nobunaga (15341582) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (15361598), through military action and diplomacy, finally managed to reconcile powerful clans and militant clergy. With the death of Hideyoshi in 1598, power passed to Ieyasu Tokugawa (1542-1616), who completed the activities begun jointly. The decisive battle of Sekigahara in 1600 strengthened Ieyasu's position; the fall of Oska Castle in 1615 was accompanied by the final collapse of the house of Hideyoshi and the establishment of the undivided rule of the Tokugawa shogunate.

The peaceful reign of the Tokugawa lasted 15 generations and ended only in the 19th century. This was largely a period of “closed door” policy. Decree 1640 prohibited foreigners from entering Japan, and Japanese were unable to travel abroad. The only commercial and cultural connection was with the Dutch and Chinese through the port of Nagasaki. As in other periods of isolation, there was a rise in national feelings and the emergence at the end of the 17th century. the so-called school of genre painting and engraving.

The rapidly growing capital of Edo became the center not only of the political and business life of the island empire, but also a center of arts and crafts. The requirement that the daimyo, the provincial feudal lords, be in the capital for a certain part of each year gave rise to the need for new buildings, including palaces, and therefore for artists to decorate them. At the same time, the emerging class of wealthy but non-aristocratic merchants provided new and often unprofessional patronage to artists.

The art of the early Edo period partly continues and develops the Momoyama style, strengthening its tendencies towards luxury and splendor. The richness of bizarre images and polychrome inherited from the previous period continues to develop. This decorative style reached its peak in the last quarter of the 17th century. in the so-called Genroku era of the Tokugawa period (16881703). In Japanese decorative art, it has no parallel in the extravagance and richness of color and decorative motifs in painting, fabrics, varnish, and artistic details - the attributes of a luxurious lifestyle.

Since we are talking about a relatively late period of history, it is not surprising that the names of many artists and their works have been preserved; Here it is possible to name only a few of the most outstanding. Representatives of the decorative school who lived and worked during the Momoyama and Edo periods include Honnami Koetsu (1558–1637) and Nonomura Sotatsu (d. 1643). Their work demonstrates a remarkable sense of design, composition and color. Koetsu, a talented ceramicist and lacquer artist, was renowned for the beauty of his calligraphy. Together with Sotatsu, they created poems on scrolls, which were fashionable at that time. In this combination of literature, calligraphy and painting, the images were not simple illustrations: they created or suggested a mood corresponding to the perception of the text. Ogata Korin (16581716) was one of the heirs of the decorative style and, together with his younger brother Ogata Kenzan (16631743), brought its technique to perfection. Kenzan, better known as a ceramist than as an artist, fired vessels with designs of his famous older brother on them. The revival of this school at the beginning of the 19th century. by the poet and artist Sakai Hoitsu (1761-1828) was the last surge of decorative style. Horitsu's beautiful scrolls and screens combined Korin's sense of design with the interest in nature inherent in the naturalism of the Maruyama school, expressed in the richness of color and decorative motifs characteristic of the earlier period, which was tempered by the splendor and grace of brushwork.

Along with the polychrome decorative style, the traditional ink drawing of the Kano school continued to be popular. In 1622, Kanō Tan'yu (16021674) was appointed court painter to the shogun and summoned to Edo. With his appointment to this position and the establishment of the Kano school of painting in Edo, in Kobikito, a half-century period of artistic leadership of this tradition began, which restored the Kano family to a position of prominence and made the works of the Edo period the most significant in Kano painting. Despite the popularity of screens painted with gold and bright colors created by the “great decorators” and rivals, Tanyu, thanks to the strength of his talent and official position, was able to make the painting of the revived Kano school popular among the nobility. To the traditional features of the Kano school, Tanyu added power and simplicity based on a rigid broken line and a thoughtful arrangement of compositional elements on a large free surface.

A new direction, in which the main feature was an interest in nature, began to prevail at the end of the 18th century. Maruyama Okyo (17331795), the head of the new school, was a peasant, then became a clergyman and finally an artist. The first two studies did not bring him either happiness or success, but as an artist he reached great heights and is considered the founder of the realistic school of Maruyama. He studied with the Kano school master Ishida Yutei (d. c. 1785); Based on imported Dutch engravings, he learned the Western technique of perspective depiction, and sometimes simply copied these engravings. He also studied Chinese styles from the Song and Yuan dynasties, including the subtle and realistic style of Chen Xuan (1235-1290) and Shen Nanping; the latter lived in Nagasaki at the beginning of the 18th century. Ōkyo made many works from life, and his scientific observations served as the basis for the perception of nature on which the Maruyama school was based.

In addition to the interest in naturalism in the 18th century. the influence of the Chinese artistic tradition was renewed. Representatives of this trend gravitated towards the pictorial school of artist-scientists of the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1912) eras, although, probably, their ideas about the modern state of art in China were limited. The art of this Japanese school was called bujinga (the art of educated people). One of the most influential masters who worked in the bujinga style was Ikeno Taiga (1723-1776), a famous artist and calligrapher. His mature style is characterized by thick contour lines filled with light feathery strokes of light tones and ink; He also painted with wide, free strokes of black ink, depicting bamboo trunks bent in the wind and rain. With short, curved lines, he achieved an engraving-like effect in his depiction of misty mountains above a lake surrounded by forest.

17th century gave birth to another remarkable movement of art of the Edo period. These are the so-called ukiyo-e (pictures of a changing world) - genre scenes created by and for ordinary people. Early ukiyo-e appeared in the old capital of Kyoto and were mainly picturesque. But the center of their production soon moved to Edo, and the attention of the craftsmen focused on wood engraving. The close association of woodblock prints with ukiyo-e has led to the misconception that woodblock prints were a discovery of this period; in fact, it originated back in the 11th century. Such early images were votive in nature, depicting the founders of Buddhism and deities, and during the Kamakura period, some narrative scrolls were reproduced from carved blocks. However, the art of engraving became especially popular in the period from the mid-17th to the 19th century.

The subjects of ukiyo-e prints were beautiful courtesans of cheerful neighborhoods, favorite actors and scenes from dramas. Early, so-called Primitive engravings were executed in black, with strong rhythmic wavy lines, and were characterized by simple designs. They were sometimes hand-painted in an orange-red color called tan-e (bright red paintings), with markings of mustard yellow and green. Some of the "primitive" artists used hand painting called urushu-e (lacquer painting), in which dark areas were enhanced and brightened by the addition of glue. An early multi-color print, appearing in 1741 or 1742, was called benizuri-e (raspberry print) and usually used three colors: rose-red, green, and sometimes yellow. Truly multi-color prints, using the entire palette and called nishiki-e (brocade images), appeared in 1765.

In addition to creating individual prints, many of the engravers illustrated books and made money by producing erotic illustrations in books and on scrolls. It should be borne in mind that ukiyo-e engraving consisted of three types of activity: it was the work of the draftsman, whose name the print bore, the carver and the printer.

The founder of the tradition of creating ukiyo-e prints is considered to be Hishikawa Moronobu (c. 1625–1694). Other "primitive" artists of this movement include Kiyomasu (1694-1716) and the Kaigetsudo group (a strange community of artists whose existence remains unclear), as well as Okumura Masanobu (1686-1764).

The transitional artists who created benizuri-e prints were Ishikawa Toyonobu (17111785), Torii Kiyohiro (active c. 17511760), and Torii Kiyomitsu (17351785).

The works of Suzuki Harunobu (1725–1770) ushered in the era of polychrome engraving. Filled with soft, almost neutral colors, populated by graceful ladies and gallant lovers, Harunobu's prints were a great success. Katsukawa Shunsho (17261792), Torii Kienaga (17521815) and Kitagawa Utamaro (17531806) worked with him around the same time. Each of them contributed to the development of this genre; masters brought engravings depicting graceful beauties and famous actors to perfection. Over the course of a few months in 17941795, the mysterious Tosusai Saraku created stunningly powerful and frankly brutal portraits of actors of the day.

In the first decades of the 19th century. the genre had reached maturity and was beginning to decline. Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) and Ando Hiroshige (1797-1858) are the greatest masters of the era, whose work connects the decline of the art of engraving in the 19th century. and its new revival at the beginning of the 20th century. Both were primarily landscape painters who recorded the events of modern life in their engravings. The brilliant mastery of the techniques of carvers and printers made it possible to convey in engraving whimsical lines and the slightest shades of the setting sun or the fog rising at dawn.

Meiji Restoration and modern period. It often happens that the ancient art of a particular people is poor in names, dates and surviving works, so any judgments can be made only with great caution and conditionality. However, it is no less difficult to judge contemporary art, since we are deprived of a historical perspective to correctly assess the scale of any movement or artist and his work. The study of Japanese art is no exception, and the most that can be done is to present a panorama of contemporary art and draw some tentative preliminary conclusions.

In the second half of the 19th century. Japanese ports were reopened for trade, and major changes took place on the political scene. In 1868, the shogunate was abolished and the rule of Emperor Meiji was restored. The official capital and residence of the emperor were moved to Edo, and the city itself became known as Tokyo (the eastern capital).

As had happened in the past, the end of national isolation generated great interest in the achievements of other nations. At this time, the Japanese made a huge leap in the field of science and technology. Artistically, the beginning of the Meiji era (1868-1912) demonstrates the acceptance of everything Western, including technology. However, this zeal did not last long, and it was followed by a period of assimilation, the emergence of new forms that combined a return to their own traditions and new Western trends.

Among the artists, Kano Hogai (1828-1888), Shimomura Kanzan (1873-1916), Takeuchi Seiho (1864-1924) and Tomioka Tessai (1836-1942) gained fame. The first three adhered to traditional Japanese style and subject matter, although they strived to be original in mood and technique. Seiho, for example, worked in the calm and conservative atmosphere of Kyoto. His early works were created in the naturalistic Maruyama style, but later he traveled extensively in China and was deeply influenced by Chinese ink painting. His trips to museums and leading art centers in Europe also left a mark on his work. Of all the outstanding artists of this time, only one Tomioka Tessai came close to developing a new style. His energetic and powerful works combine rough, twisted, jagged lines and smears of black ink with finely rendered areas of color. In later years, some young oil painters succeeded where their grandfathers had failed. The first attempts to work with this unusual material were reminiscent of Parisian canvases and were not distinguished by either special value or specifically Japanese features. However, works of exceptional appeal are now being created in which the characteristic Japanese sense of color and poise shines through abstract themes. Other artists, working with more natural and traditional ink and sometimes using calligraphy as an initial motif, create energetic abstract works in brilliant blacks with shades of gray.

As in the Edo period, in the 19th and 20th centuries. the sculpture was not popular. But even in this area, representatives of the modern generation, who studied in America and Europe, experimented very successfully. The small bronze sculptures, abstract in form and with strange names, show the Japanese sense of line and color, evident in the use of soft green or warm brown patinas; Wood carving testifies to the Japanese love for the texture of the material.

Sosaku hanga, the Japanese "creative print", appeared only in the first decade of the 20th century, but as a special art movement it eclipsed all other areas of modern art. This modern woodblock print is not, strictly speaking, a successor to the older ukiyo-e woodblock print; they differ in style, subjects and methods of creation. Artists, many of whom were heavily influenced by Western painting, recognized the importance of their own artistic heritage and found in wood a suitable material for expressing their creative ideals. Hanga masters not only draw, but also carve images on wooden blocks and print them themselves. Although the highest achievements in this art form are associated with woodwork, all modern Western engraving techniques are used. Experimenting with leaves, string, and “found objects” can sometimes create unique surface texture effects. At first, the masters of this movement were forced to seek recognition: after all, even the best achievements of the ukiyo-e school were associated by intellectual artists with the illiterate crowd and considered plebeian art. Artists such as Onchi Koshiro, Hiratsuka Unichi, and Maekawa Senpan did much to restore respect for printmaking and establish it as a worthy branch of the fine arts. They attracted many young artists to their group, and the engravers now number in the hundreds. Among the masters of this generation who achieved recognition in Japan and the West are Azechi Umetaro, Munakata Shiko, Yamaguchi Gen and Saito Kiyoshi. These are masters whose innovation and undeniable talent have earned them their rightful position among Japan's leading artists. Many of their peers and other younger hanga artists also produced wonderful prints; The fact that we do not mention their names here does not mean a low assessment of their work.

DECORATIVE ARTS, ARCHITECTURE AND GARDENS The previous sections dealt primarily with painting and sculpture, which in most countries are considered the main types of fine art. It may be unfair to include at the end of the article decorative arts and folk crafts, garden art and architecture - forms that formed an important and integral part of Japanese art. However, with the possible exception of architecture, they require special consideration apart from the general periodization of Japanese art and changes in style.

Ceramics and porcelain. The most important arts and crafts in Japan include ceramics and porcelain. Ceramic art naturally falls into two categories. The fine polychrome porcelain of Imari, Nabeshima and Kakiemon took its name from the places of production, and its rich painting on a cream or bluish-white surface was intended for the nobility and court circles. The process of making true porcelain became known in Japan in the late 16th or early 17th century; plates and bowls with a smooth glaze, with an asymmetrical or brocade-like pattern, are prized both at home and in the West.

Unlike porcelain, in coarse dishes made of clay or stone mass of low quality, characteristic of Shino, Oribe and Bizen, attention is focused on the material, the seemingly careless, but thoughtful arrangement of decorative elements. Influenced by the concepts of Zen Buddhism, such vessels were very popular in intellectual circles and were widely used, especially in tea ceremonies. Many cups, teapots and teapots, attributes of the art of the tea ceremony, embodied the very essence of Zen Buddhism: strict self-discipline and strict simplicity. During the heyday of Japanese decorative art, talented artists Korin and Kenzan were engaged in the decoration of ceramic products. It should be remembered that Kenzan's fame is associated more with his talent as a ceramist rather than as a painter. Some of the simplest vessel types and techniques come from folk craft traditions. Modern workshops, continuing old traditions, produce beautiful products that delight with their elegant simplicity.

see also CERAMICS OF THE FAR EAST; ART GLASS.

Lacquer products. Already in the 7th-8th centuries. varnish was famous in Japan. From this time, the lids of the boxes have been preserved, decorated with images of people and geometric motifs applied with thin gold lines. We have already talked about the importance of the dry varnish technique for sculpture in the 8th and 9th centuries; at the same time and later, decorative objects such as boxes for letters or boxes for incense were made. During the Edo period, these products were made in large quantities and with the most luxurious decoration. Luxuriously decorated boxes for lunch, cakes, incense and medicine, called inro, reflected the wealth and love of luxury inherent in this time. The surface of objects was decorated with patterns of gold and silver powder, pieces of gold foil, separately or in combination with inlays with shells, mother-of-pearl, an alloy of tin and lead, etc.; these patterns contrasted with lacquered red, black or brown surfaces. Sometimes drawings for varnishes were made by artists, for example Korin and Koetsu, but it is unlikely that they personally participated in these works.

see also ART VARNISHES.

Swords. The Japanese, as has already been said, were for a considerable period of their history a people of warriors; weapons and armor were considered necessities for a large part of the population. The sword was a man's pride; both the blade itself and all other parts of the sword, especially the handle (tsuba), were decorated using various techniques. Tsuba made of iron or bronze were decorated with inlays of gold and silver, covered with carvings, or trimmed with both. They depicted landscapes or human figures, flowers or family coats of arms (mon). All this complemented the work of sword makers.

Fabrics. The richly patterned silks and other fabrics favored by the court and clergy in times of opulence and abundance, as well as the simple fabrics with the almost primitive designs characteristic of folk art, are also expressions of national Japanese talent. Having reached its peak during the opulent Genroku era, the art of textiles has flourished again in modern Japan. It successfully combines ideas and artificial fibers from the West with traditional colors and decorative motifs.

Gardens. In recent decades, interest in Japanese gardens and architecture has increased due to the Western public's increased exposure to these art forms. Gardens have a special place in Japan; they are the expression and symbol of high religious and philosophical truths, and these obscure, symbolic overtones, combined with the obvious beauty of the gardens, attract the interest of the Western world. It cannot be said that religious or philosophical ideas were the main reason for the creation of gardens, but when planning and creating a garden, the artist-planner considered such elements, the contemplation of which would lead the viewer to think about various philosophical truths. Here the contemplative aspect of Zen Buddhism is embodied in a group of unusual stones, waves of raked sand and gravel combined with turf, or plants arranged so that a stream behind them disappears and then reappears, all of which encourage the viewer to independently complete the goals laid down during the construction garden ideas. The preference for vague hints over clear explanations is characteristic of Zen philosophy. A continuation of these ideas are dwarf bonsai trees and tiny gardens in pots, now popular in the West.

Architecture. The main architectural monuments of Japan are temples, monastery complexes, feudal castles and palaces. From ancient times to this day, wood has been the main building material and largely determines the design features. The most ancient religious buildings shrines of the national Japanese religion Shinto; judging by the texts and drawings, they were relatively simple buildings with a thatched roof, like the ancient dwellings. Temple buildings erected after the spread of Buddhism and associated with it were based on Chinese prototypes in style and layout. Buddhist temple architecture varied over time, and the decoration and arrangement of buildings varied among different sects. Japanese buildings are distinguished by vast halls with high roofs and complex systems of consoles, and their decor reflected the taste of their time. The simple and majestic architecture of the Horyuji complex, built near Nara in the early 7th century, is as characteristic of the Asuka period as the beauty and elegance of the proportions of Hoodo, the “Phoenix Hall” at Uji, reflected in the Lotus Lake, is of the Heian period. The more elaborate buildings of the Edo period acquired additional decoration in the form of richly painted sliding doors and screens made by the same "great decorators" who decorated the interiors of moated castles and feudal palaces.

The architecture and gardens of Japan are so closely connected that they can be considered parts of each other. This is especially true for buildings and garden houses for the tea ceremony. Their openness, simplicity, and careful relationship with landscape and perspective have a major influence on modern Western architecture.

see also CHINESE AND JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE.

THE INFLUENCE OF JAPANESE ART ON THE WEST Within just one century, the art of Japan became known in the West and had a significant influence on it. There were earlier contacts (for example, the Dutch traded with Japan through the port of Nagasaki), but the objects that reached Europe in the 17th century were mainly works of applied art - porcelain and lacquerware. They were eagerly collected as curiosities and copied in various ways, but these decorative exports did not reflect the essence and quality of Japanese art and even gave the Japanese an unflattering idea of ​​Western taste.

The first time Western painting was directly influenced by Japanese art in Europe was in 1862 during the huge International Exhibition in London. When presented at the Paris Exhibition five years later, Japanese woodblock prints again aroused great interest. Several private collections of engravings immediately emerged. Degas, Manet, Monet, Gauguin, Van Gogh and others perceived Japanese color prints as a revelation; The slight but always recognizable influence of Japanese prints on the Impressionists is often noted. The Americans Whistler and Mary Cassatt were attracted by the restraint of line and bright color spots of ukiyo-e prints and paintings.

The opening of Japan to foreigners in 1868 created a craze for all things Western and caused the Japanese to turn away from their own rich culture and artistic heritage. At this time, many beautiful paintings and sculptures were sold and ended up in Western museums and private collections. Exhibitions of these objects introduced the West to Japan and stimulated interest in travel to the Far East. Of course, the occupation of Japan by American troops at the end of World War II opened up greater opportunities than before for exploring and learning more about Japanese temples and their treasures. This interest was reflected in attendance at American museums. Interest in the East in general aroused the organization of exhibitions of works of Japanese art, selected from Japanese public and private collections and brought to America and Europe.

Scientific research in recent decades has done much to refute the notion that Japanese art is merely a reflection of Chinese art, and numerous Japanese publications in English have introduced the West to the ideals of the East.

Find " JAPANESE ART" on

For a long time I was looking for material with which to start a story about the culture of the Land of the Rising Sun. I came across a great site on the Internet. www.cultline.ru With articles from which I want to begin an excursion into the cultural history of ancient Japan.

Japanese art history is divided into several periods:

Ancient period (Heian era)

Early Middle Ages (Kamakura era)

Late Middle Ages (Tokugawa Era)

The artistic culture of Japan has developed over many centuries. During this long period, outstanding works were created that were included in the golden fund of world art. The Japanese people created a multifaceted and unusual world of artistic images and forms, which embodied the history of their life, way of life, beliefs and judgments about beauty. One of the most characteristic features of Japanese culture was the broad associativity that formed the basis of its figurative system. The poetic thinking of the Japanese was manifested in the polysemy of the content of the artistic objects they created, reflecting ideas about nature and the universe.

It is known that the historical fate of each nation is largely determined by its geographical location, natural and climatic conditions. The island position of Japan has led to the relative isolation of the Japanese ethnic group and the preservation of its homogeneity until modern times. Admiration for the beauty of Japan's unusually rich and varied nature, the ability to enjoy every moment of it, has become a feature of the national character and has received direct expression in all forms of art. Particular attention to the life of nature, associated with dependence on its elements (typhoons, earthquakes, etc.), influenced the attitude towards it as living and feeling. Therefore, not only trees and grass, birds and animals, but even rivers, mountains and stones seemed to the Japanese to be the embodiment of spirits, deities - Kami, which influenced people’s lives in all its manifestations and, accordingly, required attention and good attitude. Kami were presented with gifts and dedicated ritual chants and dances. Such veneration of the spirits of nature, ancient magical rituals formed the basis of the national religion Shinto (“Way of the Gods”). Ancestor cult was also an important component Shintoism. It was believed that each clan had its own ancestor. For example, the ancestors of noble and wealthy families were considered to be heavenly gods, while less noble families traced their origins to earthly deities. In Japanese mythology there is no single creator. At the completion of the cosmogonic process, the main role belonged to the consort gods Izanagi And Izanami. Their eldest daughter Amaterasu became the main solar deity, and, as myths testify, it is from her that the Japanese imperial family descends. All rulers of Japan are considered her descendants.

In the first centuries of our era, Shintoism was the basis of the spiritual life of Japanese society. In the 6th century, Buddhism began to spread from China through Korea; it was officially established in Japan in 538. Buddhism in Japan has shown great flexibility in adapting to local conditions and coexisting with the local Shinto religion. Initially, Buddhist deities were equated with Shinto ones; over time, the teachings of Buddhism began to have an increasing impact on public consciousness and on the development of the entire Japanese culture. The greatest influence on the development of Japanese artistic culture was made by the Buddhist Zen sect, whose teachings were widespread from the 12th to the 13th centuries. In its development from ancient times to the 19th century, Japanese art went through a number of important stages associated with the evolution of social relations.

With the collapse of the primitive communal system and the formation of the first state, a long period of feudalism began, which is usually divided into several stages . Early Middle Ages conditionally coincides with the era Kamakura(late 12th – early 14th centuries), mature middle ages falls on the 14th – early 17th centuries, the so-called eras Muromachi and Momoyama . And finally late Middle Ages 17th – 19th centuries is designated as the era Edo or Tokugawa. At each of these stages, there is a high flourishing of various types and genres of creativity. During the ancient period Nara(7th – 8th centuries) these were architectural and sculptural ensembles of Buddhist monasteries; in the 12th century (era Heian) - monuments of religious and secular painting, in the 13th century an original sculptural and pictorial portrait, in the 14th-16th centuries works of landscape architecture, famous Japanese gardens , paintings on screens and walls of palaces and castles of the 16th – 18th centuries. The final stage of medieval art in Japan was marked by the flourishing of urban culture, which gave the world magnificent works of graphics and theatrical performances Kabuki, poetry tercet - Haiku and much more.

Ancient period (Heian era)

From the time of Ancient period Japanese culture preserved mainly ceramic products. From the method of their manufacture, shapes and ornaments, we learn a lot about the people of that distant time. The artistic activity of this era was inextricably linked with primitive magic and material culture. During archaeological excavations, many different shaped vessels for various purposes were found. They were hand sculpted and fired in a simple pit.
Their shapes were obtained by laying out a spiral strand of clay. During firing, the vessel was wrapped with grass rope, which, when burned out, left a decorative mark. This is where the name of this ceramics came from, and then the era itself - Jomon(“trace of rope”). Clay figurines - dogu, which personified the forces of nature and probably served as amulets, also date back to the Jomon period. Usually their size did not exceed 25 cm.
300 BC e. – 200 AD e. are designated in Japanese historiography by the term om yayoi. During this period, ceramics of utilitarian significance appeared, made on a potter's wheel.
Japanese historians designate the period from the 3rd to the beginning of the 6th century with the word “ kofun” (“mound”), since the construction of mound tombs of representatives of the nobility acquired great importance at that time. The mounds were associated with the cult of ancestors, and around them they began to build fences from clay cylinders - Haniwa. This fence was located immediately behind the ditch, and together they formed a double barrier on the way to the burial.
Name " Haniwa"("clay wheel") comes from the technique of their manufacture. The wet clay was rolled into a cylinder, which was cut into pieces and the middle was taken out. The resulting rings were stacked on top of each other, smoothing the seams. Such a fence made of clay columns surrounded a magical space, inside which a sculpture made in a similar way was placed. The sculpture depicted people at various activities, animals, houses, and utensils.
The most significant monument of the ancient period is the Shinto architectural complex, the emergence of which dates back to the first centuries of the new era.
It is located in a mountainous wooded area and consists of two sanctuaries: the inner - Nike dedicated to the goddess Amaterasu, and external – Geku dedicated to the deity of cereals Toyouke. Each consists of many buildings made of carefully crafted, unpainted wood. The buildings are raised on pillars above ground level and surrounded by four rows of fences. Their architectural forms go back to ancient barns where crops were stored.
Adoption of Buddhism in 6th century was the most important event in Japanese history. With Buddhism, the country joined the rich, centuries-old cultural traditions of Central and Southeast Asia and thereby moved to a new stage of development.
Buddhism, which came to Japan from China through Korea, became the bearer of new forms of art. Chinese and Korean masters built the first Buddhist temples and monasteries. The temple ensemble erected in the first years of the 7th century, built in accordance with Chinese canons, has survived to this day. In the center of the vast complex is a rectangular courtyard, surrounded by covered galleries with gates on the south side and a sermon hall on the north. Inside the yard is placed main Golden Hall (Condo) and a five-tiered pagoda rising 32 meters, ending with a spire with nine rings - a symbol of the Buddhist celestial spheres. The altar sculptural composition in the interior of the temple was the main shrine and its center. It was built like a stage: statues were placed on the altar dais in a certain order, in accordance with the place of deities in the pantheon. In the center was an image of Buddha, on either side of it were statues of deities. Closer to the edges of the altar stood the defenders of the faith, sometimes in the guise of formidable warriors. In the Golden Hall Horyuji the center of the altar is occupied Syaka Triad(Trinity of Buddha Shakyamuni) is an outstanding example of early Buddhist sculpture in Japan. Adjacent to the walled area around the Golden Hall and the pagoda is another part of the complex, in the center of which is an octagonal building Yumedono(Hall of Dreams). Here is a similar style to Syaka triad statue Gyuze-Kannon
Along with architecture and sculpture, other types of art were also associated with Buddhism - painting, wood and metal carving, casting, embossing, embroidery. The interior of the Golden Hall of Horyuji preserves a luxurious canopy over the Shaka Triad with carved figurines of celestial musicians, a miniature ark in the shape of a temple, and the so-called altar Tamamushi, decorated with lacquer painting, as well as wall paintings from the late 7th - early 8th centuries depicting a Buddhist paradise and figures of deities.
The first decade of the 8th century was marked by the construction of a new capital, the city of Nara, called after the Chinese fashion Heijō-kyo(Citadel of the World). Its plan repeated the Chinese capital Chang'an and was a rectangle, oriented to the cardinal points and divided by a central highway into right and left parts. A large place in the city was occupied by grandiose monasteries with ceremonial open squares for holding state ceremonies. The entire pathos of the architecture of that era was most fully expressed in the complex of the Great Eastern Temple Todaiji, which became the main state shrine and the hall for the colossal bronze statue of Buddha Vairochana– “All-illuminating light”, deities of the Universe. Hence the second name of the temple: Daibutsuden– Big Buddha Hall. After many failures, the statue is tall 16 meters was cast. The Buddha's face was five meters wide, his palm almost four meters wide. Over the centuries, both the temple itself and the statue were repeatedly destroyed, and now we can only judge them from reconstructions of the 18th century. As in Horyuji, in complex Todaiji There are magnificent examples of sculpture from the 8th century - the period of high prosperity of this type of art.
In addition, there were many more temples and monasteries in Nara, where outstanding monuments of Buddhist sculpture were kept 8th century. Among them is the ensemble Yakushiji, with the famous oriental pagoda. A recognized masterpiece of bronze sculpture – Yakushi Triad from the temple Yakushiji includes the figure of a sitting Buddha-healer and deities standing to his left and right. Golden Hall of the Ensemble Toshodaji- one of the most beautiful Nara temples, where, in addition to statues of Buddhist deities, there is the earliest example in Japan of a portrait sculpture of the founder of the monastery, a monk Gandzina, an expert on Buddhist texts who came from China.
In 794, the city became the capital of the Japanese state Heian-kyo(modern Kyoto) - “Capital of Peace and Tranquility.” By the name of the capital, the entire era is designated as an era Heian. This was one of the most significant periods in the history of Japanese culture, rightly called classic. Based on the rethinking of Chinese models, national forms of art gradually emerged: secular architecture, painting and literature. The appearance of churches and monasteries has changed significantly. The open space of grandiose ensembles, the clarity and precision of planning, and the monumentality of forms have disappeared. Sculpture began to closely interact with painting, the role of which in the interior of the temple increased noticeably. The rapid development of Buddhist painting was a characteristic feature of the early Heian period. It is characterized by mystical abstraction and symbolism in the interpretation of the image of deities. This received its fullest expression in icon paintings mandala, which represented a complex graphic diagram of the structure of the world, in the center of which the main deity was placed Dainichi-Nyorai, and around him are many other deities. The second type of Buddhist painting is depictions of deities who protect the faith, appearing in the form of frightening demons against a background of flames. A particularly popular character was the one who was endowed with good power, despite his formidable appearance.
With increasing role Amidism, where an important part of the teaching was the idea of ​​nature as the embodiment of essence Amida-Nyorai, who is an admirer of its beauty, a new type of Buddhist temple is emerging in architecture - Amida-do(Hall of Amida), which rather resembled a palace of representatives of the aristocratic class. The meaning of such a palace-temple was to reproduce the prototype of Amida's paradise on earth. Such temples were erected not only near the capital, but also in the provinces. One of the most magnificent temples of Amida was located in the monastery Byodoin near Kyoto, also known as the temple Phoenix because of the images of this fantastic bird on the roof. The interior housed the main shrine of the temple - Amida-Nyorai statue , seated on a lotus throne under a lush carved canopy against the backdrop of a magnificent halo. The statue is attributed to an 11th century master Jocho. In his workshop, the production of sculpture using the technique began for the first time yosegi, where the figure was assembled in parts, as opposed to the earlier technique of carving a statue from a single piece of wood.
The most important artistic discoveries of the period Heian, which had a strong impact on the further development of Japanese culture, were made in secular art - architecture, painting, music and calligraphy. This was largely facilitated by the isolation of Japan from external influences, which began at the end of the 9th century. In this wonderful era, the culture of which is associated with the creative activity of a narrow circle of the capital's aristocracy, the process of rethinking the old traditions associated with China is completed, national poetry reaches the peak of its sound, Japanese prose arises and in a relatively short time rises to amazing heights, the highest achievement of which is "The Tale of Genji" late 10th century writers Murasaki Shikibu. The principles of so-called painting are being formed Yamato-e(“Japanese painting”), in its themes and subjects associated with the life of the Heian aristocracy. It appears along with the development of architecture Shinden-zukuri, that is, residential architecture. Its design features created the preconditions for the emergence of painting, since a single large interior space was divided by screens decorated with paintings and poetry. One of the main types Yamato-e- horizontal pictorial scrolls that illustrated literary works and interspersed with parts of the text. An outstanding work of this kind - illustrations for 54 chapters of the novel Murasaki Shikibu, dating back to the early 12th century and attributed to the artist Fujiwara Takayoshi. Currently, only 28 parts of the text and 20 fragments of illustrations have survived. The outer outline of the Story is the love adventures of the handsome Prince Genji. Following the ups and downs of his life, the reader is directly involved in the style of court life, participates in palace ceremonies, and observes the emotional movements that accompany certain actions of the characters. Such scrolls (Genji-monogatari-emaki) were viewed on a low table, gradually unfolding on one side and folding on the other, which influenced their compositional structure.

Early Middle Ages (Kamakura era)

The second half of the 12th century in the history of Japan was marked by the struggle for power of the two largest feudal clans - Taira and Minamoto . As a result of the victory, the military leader Minamoto Yoritomo declared himself shogun- military ruler of the country. The residence of the shoguns was located in Kamakura, declared the new capital. This is where the name came from period – Kamakura . The establishment of the shogunate was the establishment of a new social structure: the dominance of the feudal class bushi (samurai). Naturally, Kamakura culture completely denied effeminacy and the cult of feelings Heian aristocratic culture . To establish the ideals of masculinity and strength, other images and other artistic forms were required. Kamakura literature included significant elements of folk art, which manifested itself in the creation of military epics - gunki, illustrations for which became the themes of picturesque emaki scrolls.
Kamakur culture is characterized by an interest in real life events and in a person’s personality. This was associated with the high flourishing of portrait art in sculpture and painting of that time.
The approval of new social ideals also required corresponding architectural forms. Their appearance was facilitated by the appeal to monuments of the 8th century. The new rulers of the country wanted to appear as guardians of the traditions of monumental architecture of the past as an expression of the strength of the state. Huge funds were collected throughout the country for the restoration of Nara temples. Large sculpture workshops were created under them, headed by famous sculptors of that time Kokei, Unkei and Kaikei. The last high flowering of Japanese Buddhist sculpture is associated with their work and their school. The monumental statues of guards with their power, expression of gestures, and facial expressions were the embodiment of the new ideals of the era. A craving for authenticity and naturalness is characteristic of many of Unkei’s works. Images of the legendary Indian patriarchs have survived to this day. Sessina And Mutyaku, completed around 1208.
The masterpieces of pictorial portraiture include the one attributed to the artist Fujiwara Takanobu portrait of a military leader Minamoto Yoritomo , depicted in ceremonial clothes. Painting on scrolls also changed significantly; its main feature was the affirmation of the narrative principle.
Works appeared that illustrated legends full of dramatic episodes and active actions of people. Their heroes are commoners, representatives of the lower social strata of society. Along with with portrait painting the most striking phenomenon Kamakura period – narrative scrolls emakimono, the plots of which are associated with heroic epics - gunki. The Most Outstanding Monument – ​​Illustrations to "The Tale of the War of the Heiji Years."
The life of Kamakura warriors was significantly different from the life of the Heian aristocracy. The objects most important to their lives have changed accordingly. Now all attention turned to weapons and armor. The main weapon of the samurai, in addition to the bow and arrow, was the sword. But it was not just a weapon, but a symbol of the warrior, his courage and valor, so even the process of making the blade itself was framed as a solemn ritual. The blade was formed from many strips of iron welded together through a process of melting and forging. The procedure for hardening the blade, grinding it and sharpening it was very difficult. Then the light, strong and sharp blade of the sword went into the hands of a gunsmith-jeweler, who carefully decorated the handle and scabbard.

Mature Middle Ages (Muromachi era)

In 1333, one of the representatives of the feudal house Ashikaga captured Kyoto. Based on the name of one of the districts of Kyoto, where the Ashikaga residence was located, the period of the reign of this shogunate began to be called the era Muromachi. The 14th-16th centuries were the time when two opposing streams gradually united in Japanese culture - Heian and Kamakura. Along with increasing Chinese influences, this contributed to the formation of a new culture of the mature Middle Ages. Cult of heroism, harsh morality bushido continued to exist, but in a more abstract form, next to the desire for the refined luxury of everyday life and the cult of nature, even more developed than before. State support received Zen teaching, the monasteries of this sect turned into large cultural centers. Under the influence of Zen, a new aesthetic concept emerged. They were taught to see beauty in the simple and ordinary, in the dim and discreet. This idea influenced changes in the forms of both religious and secular architecture.
Few authentic works of architecture from the 14th and 15th centuries have survived to this day. Among them are Kinkakuji or Golden Pavilion , built in 1394, and Ginkakuji or Silver Pavilion , built in 1489 as the villa of shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa and later became a Buddhist temple. The meaning of such works, their content, is revealed only in comparison with nature; architecture and nature become equivalent parts of the artistic image.
But natural nature could not enter into this unity; it had to be artistically transformed by the garden master in accordance with the same principles that guided the architect of the pavilions. The garden was necessary integral part this architecture, since the very idea of ​​connection, the unity of external and internal space was important here. The 14th – 16th centuries were a time of high flowering of the art of Japanese gardens, which became one of the important discoveries of the medieval era.
In the 16th century there was a careful development of each element of the garden in terms of its symbolic meaning. The idea of ​​a symbolic garden was taken from China, but received a very special expression from Japanese masters. A garden created only from stones and sand is the so-called "dry landscape" (Kare Sansui). The art of arranging stones was considered the most important thing, on which the meaning of the garden and its image depended. Masterpieces of this type of garden are located in Kyoto - Garden Daisen-in in the monastery Daitokuji and garden Ryoanji.
Under the influence of the teachings of Zen, the so-called cult of tea or tea ceremony became widespread. Special Tyaniva gardens were also associated with the tea ceremony, which became a necessary part of a special architectural structure for the tea ritual.
From the second half of the 13th century in narrative painting Yamato-e The role of landscape as a living environment for people gradually began to increase. The artistic concept of landscape that developed on the continent in the 11th-12th centuries, embodied in the forms of monochrome ink painting (in Japanese - sumi-e or Suibokuga) put forward a new idea for Japanese art to embody the natural world in its grandeur, integrity and cosmic grandeur. It was a fundamentally different art system, the basis of which was a conceptual landscape “mountain-water” (in Japanese – san sui) . “Water Mountains” is not just a designation of plot motifs, but an indication of the main principles of the world, their material embodiment: the mountain was considered the embodiment of a bright, positive principle - yang, and water – dark, negative – yin The interaction and creative power of these principles was what the artist had to express in his landscape. From the mid-14th century, monochrome landscape became the predominant type of painting, developing mainly in the monasteries of the Zen sect. Gradually, Zen painting developed its own special range of subjects: imaginary portraits of holy ascetics of the past, images of the goddess of mercy Kannon, founder of the sect Daruma, wise men Kanzana And Jittoku, as well as a variety of natural motifs - flowers, birds, animals, landscapes. Contemplation of such a picture, according to the teachings of Zen, like contemplation of real nature, opened the way to comprehension of the Truth of Existence, to “enlightenment” - satori. Such paintings were hung on the wall or in a special niche - tokonoma for certain occasions, the rest of the time they were stored rolled up in cases. These scrolls framed with silk fabric or brocade are called kakemono (« hanging thing«).
The highest flowering of Japanese monochrome ink painting is associated with the name of the outstanding master Toyo Oda, better known as Sesshu. Like Zen philosophical gardens, Sesshu's monochrome landscape painting also became a philosophy of nature with a generalized idea of ​​the universe characteristic of that time.
In addition to landscapes in the form of kakemono, monochrome paintings appeared on screens and wall panels. One of the most famous artists who continued the tradition of sumi-e ink painting was Hasegawa Tohaku.

Transition from the Mature to the Late Middle Ages (Momoyama era)

In the second half of the 16th and early 17th centuries, fortified castles and magnificent palaces of the feudal nobility began to be built. This time in Japanese historiography is referred to as the era Momoyama, a transitional stage from the mature Middle Ages to its late, final stage - the period Edo (Tokugawa). Relatively short period of time Momoyama, when Japan was ruled by the military dictators Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi who seized power, is full of many events in both political and cultural life. The most important thing in the history of Japan was the unification of the country after many years of feudal strife, which contributed to economic growth and turned Japan into one of the strongest states in the Far Eastern region, when it began to maintain relations not only with China and Korea, but also sent the first missions to Europe. With so many historical events and changes, the culture of Japan could not remain unchanged.
The functions of all types of art have changed, new genres of creativity have appeared. The religious consciousness that dominated in the previous era is gradually giving way to secularism. One of the important manifestations of this process was the construction of castles and palaces. Grandiose fortified castles, the construction of which was caused by the appearance of firearms in Japan and the corresponding change in battle and defense tactics, received, in addition to the utilitarian, a pronounced symbolic meaning of asserting the power of military dictators. The interiors of the palaces were also the personification of the power and wealth of the owner. Their decorative decoration gradually increased from the first hall to the main place of official receptions, decorated with wall paintings on a golden background. The status of the ruler of the country was emphasized by the entire decor of the hall: the shogun sat in front of his vassals on a low dais placed on a floor covered with mats against the backdrop of a giant pine tree painted on the wall - a well-known symbol of longevity, strength and power. The increased role of wall paintings in the palaces of that time is explained by the desire for theatricality and entertainment. Never before has Japanese wall painting known such a scale. Its main motive, as before, was nature, butnow these were mainly compositions depicting trees, flowers, animals and birds. The main halls were decorated in the so-called style Kimpeki– bright colors on a golden background.
Decorative painting existed both in the form of painting on sliding internal partitions of rooms and on screens. In its history, three main stages are clearly distinguishable, associated with the activities of three outstanding artists, each of whom defined the style of his time. At the first stage, the central figure in painting was Kano Eitoku, on the second - Tawaraya Sotatsu, on the third - Ogata Korin. The immediate predecessors of Kano Eitoku were the founders of the so-called Kano Masanobu School And Motonobu who made an attempt to unite the principles of national painting Yamato-e and monochrome ink painting of Chinese origin. Refusal of detailing, comparison of large color spots and creation of a single decorative composition from them has become the method of work Kano Eitoku, his main discovery in the art of wall painting. Ideas Eitoku continued and developed by many of his contemporaries, although in their works, despite the significant similarity of compositional techniques, a powerful temperament and powerful force were no longer felt Eitoku.

Late Middle Ages (Tokugawa era)

17th century, the time of the establishment of the power of the shoguns Tokugawa, the establishment of long-term peace in the country also brought significant changes to the art of decorative painting. In its forms and in its style, it was already addressed to a different audience and demanded a different attitude towards itself on the part of the viewer, greater erudition in all spheres of creative activity, especially in poetry, since now many of the subjects and images of wall paintings were associated with well-known works of classical literature of the past.
The largest master of that time was Tawaraya Sotatsu, one of the founders of the so-called Rimpa school. He painted mainly screens, which became the main form of decorative painting after the construction of feudal castles was officially prohibited in the second quarter of the 17th century. Therefore, having lost its social functions, decorative painting acquired new features and a new language. IN Sotatsu murals everything is built on associations, hints, allusions, everything is addressed to the imagination, memory and erudition of the viewer. The artist set the task not simply of reproducing the plot situation, but of conveying the poetic meaning of the episode, its internal subtext. And in order to fully appreciate Sotatsu’s works, one had to know all the subtleties of the literary source.
The tradition of Sotatsu was continued by an outstanding artist whose work determined new stage in the development of decorative painting in Japan, Ogata Korin. Many motifs of his works are also associated with classical literature, but he lived in a different era, when the ideals and assessments of the past changed, when external decorativeness often seemed more attractive than the internal meaning and subtext of the work. One of the features Korin's creativity - concentration on several motifs, their repeated repetition in different types of art, since he was not only a painter, but also a ceramist, painted silk kimonos and lacquer boxes. The motif of irises was especially common in his work. The appearance of the image of irises has very specific meanings and brings to mind an episode from a classic story of the 9th century "Ise monogatari." This refers to the moment telling about the stop of the traveling poet Ariwara Narihira near a stream with irises, where they wrote a poem on this topic.
The traditions of decorative painting were preserved by followers Rimpa schools, and one of the most outstanding masters was Ogata Kenzan, also famous as a calligrapher and ceramist.
It is impossible not to note works of art that are in one way or another connected with the stay of Europeans in Japan. They began to be designated as " namban bijutsu"or the art of the southern barbarians, the Portuguese. They can be divided into two groups. Firstly, these are works of traditional painting on screens, the subjects of which are related to the appearance of Europeans and their activities in Japan. Secondly, these are works with Christian and secular non-Japanese subjects, executed in an unconventional manner and with materials unusual for Japanese artists. All works of the second group were associated with missionaries and were carried out under their supervision, and often on their order.
Back in the 14th and 15th centuries, simultaneously with landscape painting in ink, and later with decorative wall paintings, there was genre painting – fuzokuga (“pictures of morals and customs”). Often the same artists painted paintings with plant motifs and scenes depicting people engaged in various activities. As a rule, these scenes did not have independent meaning, but were part of the illustrations for literary works, descriptions of biographies of famous poets or famous preachers of Buddhism. Its true heyday occurred in the second half of the 16th and early 17th centuries, a time of rapid growth of cities and the formation of an independent urban culture. For the first time in the history of Japanese art, genre painting reflected reality. The main customers for screens with genre subjects were wealthy townspeople who saw themselves and their lives in this art. The main ones, along with other subjects, were screens « Views of Kyoto and its surroundings ". Kyoto at that time was not just the capital, but the personification of the country and the inviolability of its cultural traditions. Holidays, solemn processions, entertainment of townspeople, scenes from the life of entertainment districts, dancing Perches- founder of the theater Kabuki, priestess of a Shinto shrine.
The main achievement and discovery of genre painting—the artistic exploration of reality—had the most important consequences for the development of the entire artistic culture of Japan.
But the most significant phenomenon during the late Middle Ages and the transition to modern times was, of course, art of engraving . It was a unique result of the centuries-long development of Japanese artistic culture. Here, the changed view of the world and the place of man in it, which had changed compared to the past, was expressed most fully, which led to the creation of new forms in art.
The development of the art of engraving spans about two centuries. This is the so-called Edo period- a century of political isolation of Japan from the outside world, strict regulation of social relations, but at the same time of high economic growth, urban growth, and the entry into the historical arena of representatives of wealthy merchants and urban artisans. Together with the bankrupt small samurai, actors, and dancers, they formed the basis of the urban population, which gradually created their own forms of culture. One of them was wood engraving or woodcut.
The technique of printing from wooden boards has been known in Japan for a long time and was used to disseminate Buddhist texts. Now it served secular art and received the name “ ukiyo-e", that is, the image " fast-flowing bustling world ". Three people took part in the creation of the engraving: the artist, the engraver and the printer. Japanese craftsmen used longitudinally cut boards made of boxwood, pear or wild cherry with a particularly expressive texture of the fibers, which contributed to the smoothness and beauty of the lines applied.
The first successes in the development of the art of engraving are associated with the name of the outstanding master Hishikawa Moronobu (1638-1714), who began his career in book graphics. His early works were monochrome, some of Moronobu's prints were hand-colored by the artist himself or by customers.
From the very beginning, easel engraving developed in two main directions: images of beautiful courtesans from gay neighborhoods (bijinga) and scenes from their lives and actors (yakusha-e) and various theatrical themes. Using numerous technical innovations, engraving developed very quickly. In the 40s of the 18th century, the artist Okumura Masanobu (1686-1764) printing in two colors was invented - pink and green.
The first multicolor engravings appeared in the luxury calendars released for the new year 1765. They were performed by the artist Suzuki Harunobu (1725-1770), who is considered the inventor of multicolor printing. His works were called nishiki-e (“brocade paintings”). Dynasty artists played a particularly noticeable role in the creation of theatrical graphics. Torii and Katsukawa , who worked for just less than a year, a renowned and brilliant artist Toshusai Sharaku, who created about one hundred and forty engravings in such a short time, then the dynasty that came to the fore in the 19th century Utagawa.
An outstanding master of the everyday writing genre was Kitagawa Utamaro (1753-1806), whose works became the pinnacle of lyrical engraving. The main theme of his work was women, be they beautiful courtesans or washerwomen, but always equally attractive with the soft smoothness of their movements and graceful gestures. Utamaro's work completed the classical stage in the history of woodcuts.
The characteristic features of 19th century engraving were determined by the work of the largest and one of the most famous artists of Japan, Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849). His art is characterized by a completeness of coverage of life, unprecedented in Japanese art, and a wide interest in all its manifestations. The master's main discovery was his series of Japanese landscapes. His younger contemporary, landscape painter Ando Hiroshige (1797-1858), managed to convey a more intimate, more lyrical character of nature. She attracted him in her private manifestations, devoid of grandeur and grandeur, but close to man with her intimate and soft beauty.
The artist became famous for his series "53 Tokaido Stations" , the road that connected the old capital of Kyoto with the new one - Edo. Many masters continued the traditions of everyday life and landscape graphics, but the mid-19th century was already the sunset stage of ukiyo-e.
In painting of the 17th – 19th centuries there were several directions or schools that differed in content and style. Close to the artists Tosa schools who continued the traditions Yamato-e 9th – 12th centuries, school masters worked Kano And Rimpa, many of whom were engaged in decorative paintings. The most important feature in the development of painting of this period was the appeal to reality. Even representatives of Kano and Rimpa showed interest in working from life, which was an innovation for the artistic method of Japanese masters. This happened both under the influence of literature, which strived for specificity in the description of situations, for the accuracy of facts, and in connection with the appearance of works of European art in the field of view of Japanese artists. The most prominent representative of the so-called “naturalistic” movement was Maruyama Okyo. One should not look to him for philosophical generalizations or political symbols of power.
He encourages you to rejoice in the world opening before your eyes, its beauty and the disappearing charm of moments. The masters of the school held completely opposite views Nanga or Bundzinga(“painting of intellectuals”). The brightest representatives of this trend were Ike no Taiga And Yosa Buson. The highest meaning of their creativity was in the search for forms of an object visible to the eye that would convey its inner, hidden meaning, the great harmony that animated everything around.
Japanese painting of the late Middle Ages was distinguished not only by its variety of directions, but was rich in major creative individuals and original talents, whose works became the most valuable asset of national Japanese culture.
We cannot ignore the decorative and applied arts of Japan from the 17th to 19th centuries. After all, it tells not only about the material needs of people and everyday features, but also gives an idea of ​​​​the spiritual values ​​of the people. The constant repetition of natural motifs in the decor of ceramics and porcelain, lacquerware and costume is explained by the peculiarities of the Japanese worldview, who saw nature and its laws as an expression of the world order. The culture of admiring natural and man-made nature, including beautiful things and costumes, dates back to Heian era. Zen mentors - “tea masters” taught the ability to contemplate an object, to see beauty in the ordinary, everyday - simple ceramic utensils, a bamboo vase. Tea masters have discovered such beauty in discreet, slightly rough products, the so-called “ Six old stoves ". Furnace products most fully embodied this aesthetics of the tea cult. Shigaraki, Iga, Karatsu And Raku.
The most vibrant and interesting period in the development of decorative arts falls at the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th centuries. It was a time of high cultural growth. With name Nonomura Ninsei, who worked in the second half of the 17th century, is associated with the flowering of ceramics with the use of enamel paints. And the beginning of the 17th century was marked by an important event in the history of Japanese decorative and applied arts - the production of porcelain with overglaze painting .
17th – 18th centuries – the time of the rise of textile production. The form of the Japanese national costume developed gradually and was associated with climatic conditions and everyday characteristics of the country. Traditional Japanese costume kimono- This is standard clothing that has been worn by representatives of almost all classes since the 17th century. An older name for this clothing is kosode (« long sleeve"). The most important element of the costume is the obi belt, which has both functional and decorative significance. Over the kimono, both men and women could wear shorter clothing of a similar cut. – haori. All clothes were divided into festive ( haregi) and everyday ( fudangi), differing in material.

NETSKE— keychain, a work of miniature sculpture.

The traditional Japanese kimono did not have pockets. And if women could still put something in the stitched part of the bag-shaped sleeve, then men were deprived of this convenience - they men's clothing sleeves are straight. Therefore, the Japanese borrowed from China the custom of carrying small things on their belts. The required item was tied to a cord, and the other end of the lace was tucked into the belt and, to prevent it from slipping out, a netsuke keychain was attached to it.

Netsuke were first mentioned in the Japanese encyclopedia "Kimmo Zui", published in 1690. These netsuke were shaped like a round cake of rice cookies. As a rule, they were made of wood. A little later, also in the 17th century, netsuke appeared, made in the form of lacquered boxes.

A significant impetus to the production of netsuke was given by the spread of smoking in Japan. There was a need to constantly carry with you a whole set of smoking accessories: a pipe, a tobacco pouch, a flint, etc.

After the ban on relations with China was lifted in the 18th century. Interest arose in the art of Chinese carving, which had a great influence on the material and theme of netsuke. Ivory began to be widely used - a new material for Japanese craftsmen, and keychains acquired the character of miniature plastic art.

Images of religious - Buddhist and Taoist - subjects and grotesque figures of Chinese and European merchants were popular. Europeans were depicted wearing incredible hats and huge noses.

The size of the netsuke is determined by purely practical considerations. The ones that were too small didn’t fit in the belt, and the big ones were inconvenient to wear. So the sizes from 2.5 to 15 centimeters were suggested by life itself. Also, for ease of wearing, three-dimensional figures had one side flat. On the back side, the keychains had a through hole for the cord, or parts of the figure itself were used to hold it.

At first, netsuke making was not a special branch of craft. It was carried out by the same craftsmen who specialized in carving theatrical masks, architectural details, and jewelry production. In 1781, the Osaka sword merchant Inaba Tsuryu compiled a list of netsuke masters from Osaka, Kyoto, Edo and several other cities. Not all of them were professionals. For example, the name of amateur craftsman Yoshimura Shuzan, who is widely known for his unique netsuke made of painted wood, is mentioned with great respect. Such painted netsuke are generally extremely rare, except perhaps specially stylized in the form of folk toys of the Nara province.

Of the craftsmen mentioned in this list, only about a third put a personal stamp on their products, so netsuke of the 18th century. mostly anonymous. Only at the beginning of the 19th century did putting marks on netsuke become a custom, but then another extreme arose: apprentice apprentices put the master’s mark on their, sometimes not entirely successful, works, which was something like a trademark.

The real heyday of netsuke can be considered the beginning of the 19th century. Netsuke began to be made to individual orders. The composition of mini-plastics has become more complex and sophisticated. In addition to religious and mythical subjects, images based on urban life appeared: figures of artisans, wandering actors, women doing housework.Small netsuke were covered with intricate carvings., on which a map of Japan or the names of all 53 stations on the road from Tokyo to Kyoto are cut out, and all this is placed on a disk 2.5-3 centimeters in diameter. Craftsmen are mastering new materials - metal, ceramics - and making dual-use key rings: in the form of miniature knives, ashtrays, tea ceremony accessories and even watches.Many netsuke are made in the form of theatrical masks. There are masks from the Bugaku, Gigaku, and Noh theaters, which are also absolutely fantastic, born from the imagination of their creator.

When Japan ended centuries of isolation from the outside world, the popularity of netsuke among the Japanese fell, replaced by a keen interest in Western life and Western culture. But they became incredibly popular among Europeans. The fashion for collecting them was so great that in Japan itself there were almost no netsuke left by old masters, and the best collections are now in museums in Europe, America and in the hands of private Western owners.

The article about Netsuke was taken from the website www.tomsk.fio.ru and supplemented with photographs from Yandex.

Next time we'll talk about

Since ancient times, Japanese art has been characterized by active creativity. Despite their dependence on China, where new artistic and aesthetic movements constantly emerged, Japanese artists always introduced new features and changed the art of their teachers, giving it a Japanese look.

The history of Japan as such begins to take on certain forms only at the end of the 5th century. Relatively few objects dating back to previous centuries (the Archaic period) have been discovered, although some finds made during excavations or during construction work indicate remarkable artistic talent.

Archaic period.

The oldest works of Japanese art are clay pots of the jomon type (cord impression). The name comes from the decoration of the surface with spiral impressions of cord wrapped around the sticks that the craftsman used to make the vessel. Perhaps at first the craftsmen accidentally discovered the braided prints, but then they began to use them deliberately. Sometimes cord-like clay curls were stuck onto the surface, creating a more complex decorative effect, almost a relief. The first Japanese sculpture arose in the Jomon culture. Dogu (lit. "clay image") of a person or animal probably had some religious significance. The images of people, mostly women, are very similar to the clay goddesses of other primitive cultures.

Radiocarbon dating suggests that some finds from the Jomon culture may date back to 6-5 thousand BC, but dating so early is not generally accepted. Of course, such dishes were made over a long period of time, and although exact dating cannot yet be established, three periods can be distinguished. The oldest examples have a pointed base and are almost unornamented, except for traces of a potter's tool. The vessels of the middle period are more richly ornamented, sometimes with molded elements, creating the impression of volume. The shapes of the vessels of the third period are very diverse, but the decoration again flattens and becomes more restrained.

Around the 2nd century. BC. Jomon ceramics gave way to Yayoi ceramics, characterized by graceful forms, simplicity of design and high technical quality. The vessel sherd became thinner and the ornament less fancy. This type prevailed until the 3rd century. AD

From an artistic point of view, perhaps the best works of the early period are the haniwa, clay cylinders dating from the 3rd to 5th centuries. AD Characteristic monuments of this era are huge hills, or mounds, burial structures of emperors and powerful nobility. Often very large in size, they are evidence of the power and wealth of the imperial family and courtiers. The construction of such a structure for Emperor Nintoku-tenno (c. 395-427 AD) took 40 years. The most notable feature of these mounds was the clay cylinders, haniwa, surrounding them like a fence. Usually these cylinders were completely simple, but sometimes they were decorated with human figures, less often with figures of horses, houses or roosters. Their purpose was twofold: to prevent the erosion of huge masses of land and to supply the deceased with the necessities that he used in earthly life. Naturally, the cylinders were produced in large quantities at once. The variety of themes, facial expressions and gestures of the figures decorating them is largely the result of the master’s improvisation. Despite the fact that they are the works of artisans rather than painters and sculptors, they are of great importance as a Japanese art form proper. The buildings, blanketed horses, prim ladies and warriors present an interesting picture of the military life of early feudal Japan. It is possible that the prototypes of these cylinders appeared in China, where various objects were placed directly into burials, but the execution and method of using haniwa belong to local tradition.

The Archaic period is often seen as a time devoid of works of high artistic level, a time of dominance of things of mainly archaeological and ethnological value. It must be remembered, however, that the works of this early culture as a whole had great vitality, since their forms survived and continued to exist as specific national features of Japanese art in later periods.

Asuka period

(552-710 AD). Introduction of Buddhism in the mid-6th century. made significant changes in the way of life and thinking of the Japanese and became an impetus for the development of art of this and subsequent periods. The arrival of Buddhism from China via Korea is traditionally dated to 552 AD, but it was probably known earlier. In the early years, Buddhism faced political opposition, with opposition from the national religion Shinto, but just a few decades later the new faith received official approval and was finally established. In the early years of its introduction to Japan, Buddhism was a relatively simple religion with a small number of deities that needed images, but after about a hundred years it gained strength and the pantheon grew enormously.
During this period, temples were founded, which served not only the purposes of propagating the faith, but were centers of art and education. The monastery-temple at Horyuji is one of the most important for the study of early Buddhist art. Among other treasures, there is a statue of the great triad Syaka-Nerai (623 AD). This work by Tori Bussi, the first great Japanese sculptor known to us, is a stylized bronze image similar to similar groups in the great cave temples of China. The pose of the seated Shaky (Japanese transcription of the word "Shakyamuni", the historical Buddha) and the two figures standing on either side of him is strictly frontal. The forms of the human figure are hidden by heavy symmetrical folds of schematically rendered clothes, and in the smooth elongated faces one can feel dreamy self-absorption and contemplation. The sculpture of this first Buddhist period is based on the style and prototypes from the mainland fifty years earlier; it faithfully follows the Chinese tradition that came to Japan through Korea.

Some of the most important sculptures of this time were made of bronze, but wood was also used. The two most famous wooden sculptures are those of the goddess Kannon: Yumedono Kannon and Kudara Kannon, both in Horyuji. They are a more attractive object of worship than the Shaki triad, with their archaic smiles and dreamy expressions. Although the Kannon figures also have a schematic and symmetrical arrangement of folds of clothing, they are lighter and full of movement. Tall, slender figures emphasize the spirituality of the faces, their abstract kindness, distant from all worldly concerns, but sensitive to the prayers of the suffering. The sculptor paid some attention to the contours of the figure of Kudara Kannon, hidden by the folds of clothing, and in contrast to the jagged silhouette of Yumedono, the movement of both figure and fabric is directed into depth. In profile, Kudara Kannon has a graceful S-shaped outline.

The only surviving example of painting that gives an idea of ​​the style of the early 7th century is the painting of Tamamushi Zushi, the “winged shrine”. This miniature shrine takes its name from the iridescent beetle wings set into a perforated metal frame; later it was decorated with religious compositions and figures of individual characters made with colored varnish. Like the sculpture of this period, some images show great freedom of design.

Nara period

(710-784). In 710 the capital was moved to Nara, a new city modeled after the Chinese capital Chang'an. There were wide streets, large palaces, and numerous Buddhist temples. Not only Buddhism in all its aspects, but the entire Chinese cultural and political life was perceived as a model to follow. No other country has perhaps felt more inadequate in its own culture or been so susceptible to outside influences. Scholars and pilgrims moved freely between Japan and the mainland, and government and palace life were modeled after Tang Dynasty China. However, we must remember that, despite imitating the examples of Tang China, especially in art, perceiving its influence and style, the Japanese almost always adapted foreign forms to their own.

In sculpture, the strict frontality and symmetry of the previous Asuka period gave way to freer forms. The development of ideas about the gods, increased technical skill and freedom of use of material allowed artists to create more intimate and accessible cult images. The founding of new Buddhist sects expanded the pantheon to include even the saints and founders of Buddhism. In addition to bronze sculpture, a large number of works made of wood, clay and varnish are known. Stone was rare and almost never used for sculpture. Dry varnish was especially popular, perhaps because, despite the complexity of the process of preparing the composition, works made from it looked more impressive than wooden ones and were stronger than clay products that were easier to make. Lacquer figures were formed on a wooden or clay base, which was then removed, or on wooden or wire reinforcement; they were light and durable. Despite the fact that this technique dictated some rigidity in poses, great freedom was allowed in the depiction of faces, which partially contributed to the development of what can be called portrait sculpture proper. The depiction of the deity's face was performed in accordance with the strict requirements of Buddhist canons, but the popularity and even deification of some of the founders and preachers of the faith provided excellent opportunities for conveying portrait likeness. This similarity can be seen in the sculpture made of dry varnish of the Chinese patriarch Genjin, revered in Japan, located in the Toshodaiji Temple. Genjin was blind when he arrived in Japan in 753, and his sightless eyes and enlightened state of inner contemplation are beautifully captured by the unknown sculptor. This realistic tendency was most clearly expressed in the wooden sculpture of the preacher Kuya, created by the sculptor Kosho in the 13th and 14th centuries. The preacher is dressed as a wandering beggar with a staff, gong and mallet, and small Buddha figures emerge from his half-open mouth. Not satisfied with the image of the singing monk, the sculptor made an attempt to express the innermost meaning of his words.
The images of Buddha from the Nara period are also distinguished by great realism. Created for an ever-increasing number of temples, they are not as imperturbably cold and reserved as their predecessors, have a more graceful beauty and nobility, and are addressed with greater favor to the people who worship them.

Very few paintings from this time have survived. The multi-colored design on paper depicts the past and present lives of the Buddha. This is one of the few ancient examples of emakimono, or scroll painting. The scrolls slowly unwound from right to left, and the viewer could only enjoy that part of the picture that was located between the hands unrolling the scroll. The illustrations were placed directly above the text, unlike later scrolls where a section of text alternated with an explanatory image. In these oldest surviving examples of scroll painting, outlined figures are set against a barely outlined landscape, with the central character, in this case Shaka, appearing in various scenes.

Early Heian

(784-897). In 784 the capital was temporarily moved to Nagaoka, partly to avoid the dominance of Nara's Buddhist clergy. In 794 she moved to Heian (now Kyoto) for a longer period. Late 8th and 9th centuries were a period when Japan successfully assimilated, adapting to its own characteristics, many foreign innovations. The Buddhist religion also experienced a time of change, the emergence of new sects of esoteric Buddhism, with its developed ritual and etiquette. Of these, the most influential were the Tendai and Shingon sects, which originated in India, reached China and from there were brought to Japan by two scientists who returned to their homeland after a long apprenticeship. The Shingon (“True Words”) sect was especially popular at court and quickly assumed a dominant position. Its main monasteries were located on Mount Koya near Kyoto; like other important Buddhist centers, they became repositories of huge collections of art.

9th century sculpture was mostly wooden. The images of deities were distinguished by their severity and inaccessible grandeur, which was emphasized by the solemnity of their appearance and massiveness. Draperies were skillfully cut out according to standard patterns, and scarves lay in waves. The standing figure of Shaki from the Muroji Temple is an example of this style. For this and similar images of the 9th century. characterized by rigid carvings with deeper, crisp folds and other details.

The increase in the number of gods created great difficulties for artists. In complex, map-like mandalas (geometric designs with magical meanings), the deities were arranged in a hierarchy around the central Buddha, who was himself only one manifestation of the absolute. At this time, a new manner of depicting figures of guardian deities surrounded by flames, terrible in appearance, but beneficent in nature, appeared. These deities were located asymmetrically and were depicted in moving poses, with formidable facial features, fiercely defending faith from possible dangers.

Middle and Late Heian, or Fujiwara period

(898-1185). The transfer of the capital to Heian, which was intended to evade the difficult demands of the clergy, also caused changes in the political system. The nobility was a dominant force, and its most representative representatives were the Fujiwara family. Period 10-12 centuries. often associated with this name. A period of special power began when real emperors were “strongly advised” to leave aside the affairs of the state for the more pleasant pursuits of poetry and painting. Until he came of age, the emperor was led by a strict regent - usually from the Fujiwara family. It was an age of luxury and remarkable achievements in literature, calligraphy and art; There was a languor and emotionality throughout, which rarely reached depth, but on the whole was charming. Elegant sophistication and escapism were reflected in the art of this time. Even adherents of Buddhism were looking for easier ways, and the worship of the heavenly Buddha, Amida, became especially popular. Ideas about the compassion and saving grace of Amida Buddha were deeply reflected in the painting and sculpture of this period. The massiveness and restraint of the 9th century statues. in the 10th-11th centuries. gave way to bliss and charm. The deities are depicted as dreamy, thoughtfully calm, the carving becomes less deep, the surface becomes more colorful, with a richly developed texture. The most important monuments of this period belong to the sculptor Jocho.
The artists' works also acquired softer features, resembling drawings on fabric, and even the terrible deities - defenders of the faith - became less frightening. Sutras (Buddhist texts) were written in gold and silver on deep blue paper, the beautiful calligraphy of the text was often preceded by a small illustration. The most popular strands of Buddhism and their associated deities reflect the preferences of the aristocracy and a gradual shift away from the austere ideals of early Buddhism.

The atmosphere of this time and his works are partly connected with the cessation of formal relations with China in 894. Buddhism in China at this time was persecuted, and the corrupt Tang court was in a state of decline. The secluded island existence that followed this severance encouraged the Japanese to turn to their own culture and develop a new, purer Japanese style. Indeed, secular painting of the 10th-12th centuries. was almost entirely Japanese - both in technique and in composition and subjects. A distinctive feature of these Japanese scrolls, called yamato-e, was the predominance of engi (origin, history) subjects. While Chinese scrolls most often depicted vast, amazing nature, panoramas of mountains, streams, rocks and trees, and people seemed relatively insignificant, on Japanese narrative scrolls the main thing in the drawing and text was the person. The landscape played only the role of a background for the story being told, subordinate to the main character or persons. Many scrolls were hand-drawn chronicles of the lives of famous Buddhist preachers or historical figures, their travels and military campaigns. Others told of romantic episodes from the lives of nobles and courtiers.

The apparently distinctive style of the early scrolls came from simple ink sketches on the pages of Buddhist notebooks. These are skillful drawings that caricature human behavior through animal images: a monkey in monastic robes worshiping an inflated frog, competitions between hares, monkeys and frogs. These and other late Heian scrolls served as the basis for the more complex narrative scrolls of the developed style of the 13th and 14th centuries.

Kamakura period

(1185-1392). Late 12th century brought major changes to the political and religious life of Japan and, of course, to its art. The elegance and aestheticism of the Kyoto court was replaced or, in the tradition of "special" rule, "received an addition" in the form of a new, harsh and courageous rule - the Kamakura shogunate. Although the capital remained nominally Kyoto, shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147-1199) established his headquarters in the city of Kamakura and in just 25 years established a rigid system of military dictatorship and feudalism. Buddhism, which had become so complex and ritualized that it was little understood by ordinary lay people, also underwent major changes that did not promise patronage of the arts. The Yodo (Pure Land) sect, a form of veneration of Amida Buddha, under the leadership of Honen Shonin (1133-1212) reformed the hierarchy of Buddhas and deities and gave hope of salvation to all who simply believed in Amida. This doctrine of an easily attainable paradise was later simplified by another monk, Shinran (1173-1262), founder of the Shin sect, who recognized that Amida's condescension was so great that there was no need to perform religious acts, simply repeating the incantation "Namu Amida Butsu" (the first word means “to obey”; the second two are “Buddha Amida”). This simple method of saving the soul was extremely attractive, and is now used by millions. A generation later, the militant preacher Nichiren (1222-1282), after whom the sect is named, abandoned this simplified form of religion. His followers revered the Lotus Sutra, which did not promise instant and unconditional salvation. His sermons often touched on political topics, and his beliefs and proposed reforms of church and state appealed to the new military class in Kamakura. Finally, Zen philosophy, which emerged as early as the 8th century, began to play an increasingly important role in Buddhist thought during this period. Zen emphasized the importance of meditation and disdain for any images that might hinder man in his quest to unite with God.

So, this was a time when religious thought limited the number of works of painting and sculpture previously necessary for the cult. Nevertheless, some of the finest works of Japanese art were created during the Kamakura period. The incentive was the inherent Japanese love of art, but the key to the solution lies in the attitude of the people to new creeds, and not in dogmas as such. Indeed, the works themselves suggest the reason for their creation, because many of these sculptures and paintings full of life and energy are portraits. Although Zen philosophy might consider ordinary religious objects to be an obstacle to enlightenment, the tradition of honoring teachers was quite acceptable. A portrait in itself could not be an object of worship. This attitude towards the portrait was characteristic not only of Zen Buddhism: many ministers of the Pure Land sect were revered almost like Buddhist deities. Thanks to the portrait, a new architectural form even appeared - mieido, or portrait chapel. The rapid development of realism was completely in the spirit of the times.
Although the picturesque portraits of the priests were obviously indeed images of specific people, they were often reworkings of paintings depicting the Chinese founders of Buddhism. They were depicted preaching, their mouths open, their hands gesticulating; sometimes mendicant monks were depicted making a difficult journey for the glory of faith.

One of the most popular subjects was raigo (desired arrival), which depicted Buddha Amida with his companions descending on a cloud to save the soul of a believer on his deathbed and transfer it to heaven. The colors of such images were often enhanced by applied gold, and the wavy lines, flowing capes, and swirling clouds gave a sense of movement to the descent of the Buddha.

Unkei, active in the second half of the 12th and early 13th centuries, was the author of an innovation that facilitated wood carving, which remained the favorite material of sculptors during the Kamakura period. Previously, the master was limited by the size and shape of the log or log from which the figure was cut. The arms and clothing elements were applied separately, but the finished piece often resembled the original cylindrical shape. In the new technique, dozens of small pieces were carefully fitted together to form a hollow pyramid, from which apprentices could then roughly carve out a shape. The sculptor had at his disposal a more pliable material and the ability to create more complex forms. The muscular temple guards and deities in flowing capes and robes seemed more alive also because crystal or glass began to be inserted into their eye sockets; statues began to be decorated with gilded bronze. They became lighter and cracked less often as the wood dried. The aforementioned wooden statue of Kuya Shonin, by Kosho, Unkei's son, demonstrates the highest achievement of Kamakura-era realism in portrait sculpture. Indeed, sculpture at this time reached its apogee in its development, and subsequently it no longer occupied such a prominent place in art.

Secular painting also reflected the spirit of the times. Narrative scrolls of the late Heian period, with restrained colors and graceful lines, told about the romantic escapades of Prince Genji or the entertainments of the reclusive court ladies. Now, with bright colors and energetic brushstrokes, artists of the Kamakura era depicted battles of warring clans, palaces engulfed in flames and frightened people fleeing from attacking troops. Even as religious history unfolded on the scroll, the image was not so much an icon as it was a historical record of the travels of holy men and the miracles they performed. In the design of these scenes one can detect a growing love for nature and admiration for native landscapes.

Muromachi or Ashikaga period

(1392-1568). In 1392, after more than 50 years of strife, the third shogun of the Ashikaga family, Yoshimitsu (1358-1408), reunited the country. The seat of government again became the nominal capital of Kyoto, where the Ashikaga shoguns built their palaces in the Muromachi quarter. (This period is sometimes called Muromachi or Ashikaga.) Wartime did not spare many temples - repositories of Japanese art, which were burned along with the treasures located there. The country was brutally ruined, and even peace did not bring much relief, since the warring clans, achieving success, distributed favors at their whim. It would seem that the situation was extremely unfavorable for the development of art, but in reality the Ashikaga shoguns patronized it, especially in the 15th and 16th centuries, when painting flourished.

The most significant artistic phenomenon of this time was the monochrome poetic ink paintings encouraged by Zen Buddhism and influenced by Chinese examples of the Song and Yuan dynasties. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), contacts with China were renewed, and Yoshimitsu, a collector and patron of the arts, encouraged the collecting and study of Chinese paintings. It became a model and starting point for gifted artists who painted landscapes, birds, flowers, images of clergy and sages with light and fluent brush strokes. Japanese painting of this time is characterized by economy of line; the artist seems to extract the quintessence of the depicted plot, allowing the viewer to fill it with details. The transitions of gray and shiny black ink in these paintings are very close to the Zen philosophy, which certainly inspired their authors. Although this belief achieved considerable influence under the military rule of Kamakura, it continued to spread rapidly in the 15th and 16th centuries, when numerous Zen monasteries arose. Preaching mainly the idea of ​​"self-salvation", it did not link salvation to the Buddha, but relied more on a person's severe self-discipline to achieve a sudden intuitive "enlightenment" that unites him with the absolute. The economical but bold use of ink and asymmetrical composition, in which unpainted parts of the paper played a significant role in depictions of idealized landscapes, sages and scientists, were consistent with this philosophy.

One of the most famous exponents of sumi-e, a style of monochrome ink painting, was Sesshu (1420-1506), a Zen priest whose long and fruitful life earned him long-lasting veneration. At the end of his life, he began to use the haboku (quick ink) style, which, in contrast to the mature style, which required clear, economical strokes, brought the tradition of monochrome painting almost to abstraction.
The same period marks the activity of the Kano family of artists and the development of their style. In terms of the choice of subjects and the use of ink, it was close to Chinese, but in terms of expressive means it remained Japanese. Kano, with the support of the shogunate, became the "official" school or artistic style of painting and flourished well into the 19th century.

The naive tradition of Yamato-e continued to live on in the works of the Tosa school, the second important movement of Japanese painting. In fact, at this time both schools, Kano and Tosa, were closely connected, they were united by an interest in modern life. Motonobu Kano (1476-1559), one of the outstanding artists of this period, not only married his daughter to the famous artist Tosa, but also painted in his manner.

In the 15-16th centuries. Only a few noteworthy works of sculpture appeared. It should be noted, however, that the development of noo drama, with its variety of moods and emotions, opened up a new field of activity for sculptors - they carved masks for actors. In classical Japanese drama, performed by and for the aristocracy, the actors (one or more) wore masks. They conveyed a range of feelings from fear, anxiety and confusion to restrained joy. Some masks were so beautifully carved that the slightest turn of the actor's head caused subtle changes in the expression of feelings. Remarkable examples of these masks were kept for years in the families for whose members they were made.

Momoyama period

(1568-1615). In 1593, the great military dictator Hideyoshi built his castle on Momoyama, “Peach Hill,” and by this name the period of 47 years from the fall of the Ashikaga shogunate to the establishment of the Tokugawa, or Edo, period in 1615 was generally accepted. This was the time of the dominance of an entirely new military class, whose great wealth contributed to the flourishing of art. Impressive castles with vast audience halls and long corridors came into fashion in the late 16th century. and demanded decorations appropriate to their greatness. It was a time of stern and courageous people, and the new patrons, unlike the previous aristocracy, were not particularly interested in intellectual pursuits or the subtleties of craftsmanship. Fortunately, the new generation of artists was quite consistent with their patrons. During this period, wonderful screens and movable panels appeared in bright crimson, emerald, green, purple and blue colors. Such exuberant colors and decorative forms, often on a gold or silver background, were very popular for a hundred years, and their creators were quite rightly called “the great decorators.” Thanks to the subtle Japanese taste, the lush style did not develop into vulgarity, and even when restraint and understatement gave way to luxury and decorative excesses, the Japanese managed to maintain elegance.

Eitoku Kano (1543-1590), one of the first great artists of this period, worked in the style of Kano and Tosa, expanding the ideas of drawing of the former and combining them with the richness of colors of the latter. Although only a few works survive that can be confidently attributed to Eitoku, he is considered one of the founders of the Momoyama style, and most of the artists of this period were his students or were influenced by him.

Edo or Tokugawa period

(1615-1867). The long period of peace that followed the newly united Japan is called either the time of Tokugawa, after the surname of the ruler, or Edo (modern Tokyo), since in 1603 this city became the new center of power. Two famous generals of the short Momoyama period, Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598), through military action and diplomacy, finally managed to reconcile powerful clans and militant clergy. With the death of Hideyoshi in 1598, power passed to Ieyasu Tokugawa (1542-1616), who completed the activities begun jointly. The decisive battle of Sekigahara in 1600 strengthened Ieyasu's position; the fall of Oska Castle in 1615 was accompanied by the final collapse of the house of Hideyoshi and the establishment of the undivided rule of the Tokugawa shogunate.

The peaceful reign of the Tokugawa lasted 15 generations and ended only in the 19th century. This was largely a period of “closed door” policy. Decree 1640 prohibited foreigners from entering Japan, and Japanese were unable to travel abroad. The only commercial and cultural connection was with the Dutch and Chinese through the port of Nagasaki. As in other periods of isolation, there was a rise in national feelings and the emergence at the end of the 17th century. the so-called school of genre painting and engraving.
The rapidly growing capital of Edo became the center not only of the political and business life of the island empire, but also a center of arts and crafts. The requirement that the daimyo, the provincial feudal lords, be in the capital for a certain part of each year gave rise to the need for new buildings, including palaces, and therefore for artists to decorate them. At the same time, the emerging class of wealthy but non-aristocratic merchants provided new and often unprofessional patronage to artists.

The art of the early Edo period partly continues and develops the Momoyama style, strengthening its tendencies towards luxury and splendor. The richness of bizarre images and polychrome inherited from the previous period continues to develop. This decorative style reached its peak in the last quarter of the 17th century. in the so-called Genroku era of the Tokugawa period (1688-1703). In Japanese decorative art, it has no parallel in the extravagance and richness of color and decorative motifs in painting, fabrics, varnish, and artistic details - attributes of a luxurious lifestyle.

Since we are talking about a relatively late period of history, it is not surprising that the names of many artists and their works have been preserved; Here it is possible to name only a few of the most outstanding. Representatives of the decorative school who lived and worked during the Momoyama and Edo periods include Honnami Koetsu (1558-1637) and Nonomura Sotatsu (d. 1643). Their work demonstrates a remarkable sense of design, composition and color. Koetsu, a talented ceramicist and lacquer artist, was renowned for the beauty of his calligraphy. Together with Sotatsu, they created poems on scrolls, which were fashionable at that time. In this combination of literature, calligraphy and painting, the images were not simple illustrations: they created or suggested a mood corresponding to the perception of the text. Ogata Korin (1658-1716) was one of the heirs of the decorative style and, together with his younger brother Ogata Kenzan (1663-1743), brought its technique to perfection. Kenzan, better known as a ceramist than as an artist, fired vessels with designs of his famous older brother on them. The revival of this school at the beginning of the 19th century. poet and artist Sakai Hoitsu (1761-1828) was the last surge of decorative style. Horitsu's beautiful scrolls and screens combined Korin's sense of design with the interest in nature inherent in the naturalism of the Maruyama school, expressed in the richness of color and decorative motifs characteristic of the earlier period, which was tempered by the splendor and grace of brushwork.

Along with the polychrome decorative style, the traditional ink drawing of the Kano school continued to be popular. In 1622, Kanō Tan'yu (1602-1674) was appointed court painter to the shogun and summoned to Edo. With his appointment to this position and the establishment of the Kano school of painting in Edo, in Kobikito, a half-century period of artistic leadership of this tradition began, which restored the Kano family to a position of prominence and made the works of the Edo period the most significant in Kano painting. Despite the popularity of screens painted with gold and bright colors created by the “great decorators” and rivals, Tanyu, thanks to the strength of his talent and official position, was able to make the painting of the revived Kano school popular among the nobility. To the traditional features of the Kano school, Tanyu added power and simplicity based on a rigid broken line and a thoughtful arrangement of compositional elements on a large free surface.

A new direction, in which the main feature was an interest in nature, began to prevail at the end of the 18th century. Maruyama Okyo (1733-1795), the head of the new school, was a peasant, then became a clergyman and finally an artist. The first two studies did not bring him either happiness or success, but as an artist he reached great heights and is considered the founder of the realistic school of Maruyama. He studied with the Kano school master Ishida Yutei (d. c. 1785); Based on imported Dutch engravings, he learned the Western technique of perspective depiction, and sometimes simply copied these engravings. He also studied Chinese styles from the Song and Yuan dynasties, including the subtle and realistic style of Chen Xuan (1235-1290) and Shen Nanping; the latter lived in Nagasaki at the beginning of the 18th century. Ōkyo made many works from life, and his scientific observations served as the basis for the perception of nature on which the Maruyama school was based.

In addition to the interest in naturalism in the 18th century. the influence of the Chinese artistic tradition was renewed. Representatives of this trend gravitated towards the pictorial school of artist-scientists of the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1912) eras, although, probably, their ideas about the modern state of art in China were limited. The art of this Japanese school was called bujinga (the art of educated people). One of the most influential masters who worked in the bujinga style was Ikeno Taiga (1723-1776), a famous artist and calligrapher. His mature style is characterized by thick contour lines filled with light feathery strokes of light tones and ink; He also painted with wide, free strokes of black ink, depicting bamboo trunks bent in the wind and rain. With short, curved lines, he achieved an engraving-like effect in his depiction of misty mountains above a lake surrounded by forest.
17th century gave birth to another remarkable movement of art of the Edo period. These are the so-called ukiyo-e (pictures of a changing world) - genre scenes created by and for ordinary people. Early ukiyo-e appeared in the old capital of Kyoto and were mainly picturesque. But the center of their production soon moved to Edo, and the attention of the craftsmen focused on wood engraving. The close association of woodblock prints with ukiyo-e has led to the misconception that woodblock prints were a discovery of this period; in fact, it originated back in the 11th century. Such early images were votive in nature, depicting the founders of Buddhism and deities, and during the Kamakura period, some narrative scrolls were reproduced from carved blocks. However, the art of engraving became especially popular in the period from the mid-17th to the 19th century.

The subjects of ukiyo-e prints were beautiful courtesans of cheerful neighborhoods, favorite actors and scenes from dramas. Early, so-called Primitive engravings were executed in black, with strong rhythmic wavy lines, and were characterized by simple designs. They were sometimes hand-painted in an orange-red color called tan-e (bright red paintings), with markings of mustard yellow and green. Some of the "primitive" artists used hand painting called urushu-e (lacquer painting), in which dark areas were enhanced and brightened by the addition of glue. An early multi-color print, appearing in 1741 or 1742, was called benizuri-e (raspberry print) and usually used three colors - rose-red, green and sometimes yellow. Truly multi-color prints, using the entire palette and called nishiki-e (brocade images), appeared in 1765.

In addition to creating individual prints, many of the engravers illustrated books and made money by producing erotic illustrations in books and on scrolls. It should be borne in mind that ukiyo-e engraving consisted of three types of activity: it was the work of the draftsman, whose name the print bore, the carver and the printer.

Hishikawa Moronobu (c. 1625-1694) is considered the founder of the tradition of creating ukiyo-e prints. Other "primitive" artists of this movement are Kiyomasu (1694-1716) and the Kaigetsudo group (a strange community of artists whose existence remains unclear), as well as Okumura Masanobu (1686-1764).

The transitional artists who created benizuri-e prints were Ishikawa Toyonobu (1711-1785), Torii Kiyohiro (active c. 1751-1760), and Torii Kiyomitsu (1735-1785).

The works of Suzuki Harunobu (1725-1770) ushered in the era of polychrome engraving. Filled with soft, almost neutral colors, populated by graceful ladies and gallant lovers, Harunobu's prints were a great success. Katsukawa Shunsho (1726-1792), Torii Kienaga (1752-1815) and Kitagawa Utamaro (1753-1806) worked with him around the same time. Each of them contributed to the development of this genre; masters brought engravings depicting graceful beauties and famous actors to perfection. Over the course of a few months in 1794-1795, the mysterious Tosusai Saraku created stunningly powerful and frankly brutal portraits of actors of the day.

In the first decades of the 19th century. the genre had reached maturity and was beginning to decline. Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) and Ando Hiroshige (1797-1858) are the greatest masters of the era, whose work connects the decline of the art of engraving in the 19th century. and its new revival at the beginning of the 20th century. Both were primarily landscape painters who recorded the events of modern life in their engravings. The brilliant mastery of the techniques of carvers and printers made it possible to convey in engraving whimsical lines and the slightest shades of the setting sun or the fog rising at dawn.

Meiji Restoration and modern period.

It often happens that the ancient art of a particular people is poor in names, dates and surviving works, so any judgments can be made only with great caution and conditionality. However, it is no less difficult to judge contemporary art, since we are deprived of a historical perspective to correctly assess the scale of any movement or artist and his work. The study of Japanese art is no exception, and the most that can be done is to present a panorama of contemporary art and draw some tentative preliminary conclusions.

In the second half of the 19th century. Japanese ports were reopened for trade, and major changes took place on the political scene. In 1868, the shogunate was abolished and the rule of Emperor Meiji was restored. The official capital and residence of the emperor were moved to Edo, and the city itself became known as Tokyo (the eastern capital).

As had happened in the past, the end of national isolation generated great interest in the achievements of other nations. At this time, the Japanese made a huge leap in the field of science and technology. Artistically, the beginning of the Meiji era (1868-1912) demonstrates the acceptance of everything Western, including technology. However, this zeal did not last long, and it was followed by a period of assimilation, the emergence of new forms that combined a return to their own traditions and new Western trends.

Notable artists included Kano Hogai (1828-1888), Shimomura Kanzan (1873-1916), Takeuchi Seiho (1864-1924) and Tomioka Tessai (1836-1942). The first three adhered to traditional Japanese style and subject matter, although they strived to be original in mood and technique. Seiho, for example, worked in the calm and conservative atmosphere of Kyoto. His early works were created in the naturalistic Maruyama style, but later he traveled extensively in China and was deeply influenced by Chinese ink painting. His trips to museums and leading art centers in Europe also left a mark on his work. Of all the outstanding artists of this time, only one Tomioka Tessai came close to developing a new style. His energetic and powerful works combine rough, twisted, jagged lines and smears of black ink with finely rendered areas of color. In later years, some young oil painters succeeded where their grandfathers had failed. The first attempts to work with this unusual material were reminiscent of Parisian canvases and were not distinguished by either special value or specifically Japanese features. However, works of exceptional appeal are now being created in which the characteristic Japanese sense of color and poise shines through abstract themes. Other artists, working with more natural and traditional ink and sometimes using calligraphy as an initial motif, create energetic abstract works in brilliant blacks with shades of gray.

As in the Edo period, in the 19th and 20th centuries. the sculpture was not popular. But even in this area, representatives of the modern generation, who studied in America and Europe, experimented very successfully. The small bronze sculptures, abstract in form and with strange names, show the Japanese sense of line and color, evident in the use of soft green or warm brown patinas; Wood carving testifies to the Japanese love for the texture of the material.

Sosaku hanga, the Japanese "creative print", appeared only in the first decade of the 20th century, but as a special art movement it eclipsed all other areas of modern art. This modern woodblock print is not, strictly speaking, a successor to the older ukiyo-e woodblock print; they differ in style, subjects and methods of creation. Artists, many of whom were heavily influenced by Western painting, recognized the importance of their own artistic heritage and found in wood a suitable material for expressing their creative ideals. Hanga masters not only draw, but also carve images on wooden blocks and print them themselves. Although the highest achievements in this art form are associated with woodwork, all modern Western engraving techniques are used. Experimenting with leaves, string, and “found objects” can sometimes create unique surface texture effects. At first, the masters of this movement were forced to seek recognition: after all, even the best achievements of the ukiyo-e school were associated by intellectual artists with the illiterate crowd and considered plebeian art. Artists such as Onchi Koshiro, Hiratsuka Unichi, and Maekawa Senpan did much to restore respect for printmaking and establish it as a worthy branch of the fine arts. They attracted many young artists to their group, and the engravers now number in the hundreds. Among the masters of this generation who achieved recognition in Japan and the West are Azechi Umetaro, Munakata Shiko, Yamaguchi Gen and Saito Kiyoshi. These are masters whose innovation and undeniable talent have earned them their rightful position among Japan's leading artists. Many of their peers and other younger hanga artists also produced wonderful prints; The fact that we do not mention their names here does not mean a low assessment of their work.

DECORATIVE ARTS, ARCHITECTURE AND GARDENS

The previous sections dealt primarily with painting and sculpture, which in most countries are considered the main types of fine art. It may be unfair to include at the end of the article decorative arts and folk crafts, garden art and architecture - forms that formed an important and integral part of Japanese art. However, with the possible exception of architecture, they require special consideration apart from the general periodization of Japanese art and changes in style.

Ceramics and porcelain.

The most important arts and crafts in Japan include ceramics and porcelain. Ceramic art naturally falls into two categories. The fine polychrome porcelain of Imari, Nabeshima and Kakiemon took its name from the places of production, and its rich painting on a cream or bluish-white surface was intended for the nobility and court circles. The process of making true porcelain became known in Japan in the late 16th or early 17th century; plates and bowls with a smooth glaze, with an asymmetrical or brocade-like pattern, are prized both at home and in the West.

Unlike porcelain, in coarse dishes made of clay or stone mass of low quality, characteristic of Shino, Oribe and Bizen, attention is focused on the material, the seemingly careless, but thoughtful arrangement of decorative elements. Influenced by the concepts of Zen Buddhism, such vessels were very popular in intellectual circles and were widely used, especially in tea ceremonies. Many cups, teapots and teapots, attributes of the art of the tea ceremony, embodied the very essence of Zen Buddhism: strict self-discipline and strict simplicity. During the heyday of Japanese decorative art, talented artists Korin and Kenzan were engaged in the decoration of ceramic products. It should be remembered that Kenzan's fame is associated more with his talent as a ceramist rather than as a painter. Some of the simplest vessel types and techniques come from folk craft traditions. Modern workshops, continuing old traditions, produce beautiful products that delight with their elegant simplicity.

Lacquer products.

Already in the 7th-8th centuries. varnish was famous in Japan. From this time, the lids of the boxes have been preserved, decorated with images of people and geometric motifs applied with thin gold lines. We have already talked about the importance of the dry varnish technique for sculpture in the 8th and 9th centuries; at the same time and later, decorative objects such as boxes for letters or boxes for incense were made. During the Edo period, these products were made in large quantities and with the most luxurious decoration. Luxuriously decorated boxes for lunch, cakes, incense and medicine, called inro, reflected the wealth and love of luxury inherent in this time. The surface of objects was decorated with patterns of gold and silver powder, pieces of gold foil, separately or in combination with inlays with shells, mother-of-pearl, an alloy of tin and lead, etc.; these patterns contrasted with lacquered red, black or brown surfaces. Sometimes drawings for varnishes were made by artists, for example Korin and Koetsu, but it is unlikely that they personally participated in these works.

Swords.

The Japanese, as has already been said, were for a considerable period of their history a people of warriors; weapons and armor were considered necessities for a large part of the population. The sword was a man's pride; both the blade itself and all other parts of the sword, especially the handle (tsuba), were decorated using various techniques. Tsuba made of iron or bronze were decorated with inlays of gold and silver, covered with carvings, or trimmed with both. They depicted landscapes or human figures, flowers or family coats of arms (mon). All this complemented the work of sword makers.

Fabrics.

The richly patterned silks and other fabrics favored by the court and clergy in times of opulence and abundance, as well as the simple fabrics with the almost primitive designs characteristic of folk art, are also expressions of national Japanese talent. Having reached its peak during the opulent Genroku era, the art of textiles has flourished again in modern Japan. It successfully combines ideas and artificial fibers from the West with traditional colors and decorative motifs.

Gardens.

In recent decades, interest in Japanese gardens and architecture has increased due to the Western public's increased exposure to these art forms. Gardens have a special place in Japan; they are the expression and symbol of high religious and philosophical truths, and these obscure, symbolic overtones, combined with the obvious beauty of the gardens, attract the interest of the Western world. It cannot be said that religious or philosophical ideas were the main reason for the creation of gardens, but when planning and creating a garden, the artist-planner considered such elements, the contemplation of which would lead the viewer to think about various philosophical truths. Here the contemplative aspect of Zen Buddhism is embodied in a group of unusual stones, waves of raked sand and gravel combined with turf, or plants arranged so that a stream behind them disappears and then reappears - all this encourages the viewer to complete the construction plans themselves. garden ideas. The preference for vague hints over clear explanations is characteristic of Zen philosophy. A continuation of these ideas are dwarf bonsai trees and tiny gardens in pots, now popular in the West.

Architecture.

The main architectural monuments of Japan are temples, monastery complexes, feudal castles and palaces. From ancient times to this day, wood has been the main building material and largely determines the design features. The most ancient religious buildings are the shrines of the national Japanese religion Shinto; judging by the texts and drawings, they were relatively simple structures with a thatched roof, like ancient dwellings. Temple buildings erected after the spread of Buddhism and associated with it were based on Chinese prototypes in style and layout. Buddhist temple architecture varied over time, and the decoration and arrangement of buildings varied among different sects. Japanese buildings are distinguished by vast halls with high roofs and complex systems of consoles, and their decor reflected the taste of their time. The simple and majestic architecture of the Horyuji complex, built near Nara in the early 7th century, is as characteristic of the Asuka period as the beauty and elegance of the proportions of Hoodo, the “Phoenix Hall” at Uji, reflected in the Lotus Lake, is of the Heian period. The more elaborate buildings of the Edo period acquired additional decoration in the form of richly painted sliding doors and screens made by the same "great decorators" who decorated the interiors of moated castles and feudal palaces.

The architecture and gardens of Japan are so closely connected that they can be considered parts of each other. This is especially true for buildings and garden houses for the tea ceremony. Their openness, simplicity, and careful relationship with landscape and perspective have a major influence on modern Western architecture.

THE INFLUENCE OF JAPANESE ART ON THE WEST

Within just one century, the art of Japan became known in the West and had a significant influence on it. There were earlier contacts (for example, the Dutch traded with Japan through the port of Nagasaki), but the objects that reached Europe in the 17th century were mainly works of applied art - porcelain and lacquerware. They were eagerly collected as curiosities and copied in various ways, but these decorative exports did not reflect the essence and quality of Japanese art and even gave the Japanese an unflattering idea of ​​Western taste.

The first time Western painting was directly influenced by Japanese art in Europe was in 1862 during the huge International Exhibition in London. When presented at the Paris Exhibition five years later, Japanese woodblock prints again aroused great interest. Several private collections of engravings immediately emerged. Degas, Manet, Monet, Gauguin, Van Gogh and others perceived Japanese color prints as a revelation; The slight but always recognizable influence of Japanese prints on the Impressionists is often noted. The Americans Whistler and Mary Cassatt were attracted by the restraint of line and bright color spots of ukiyo-e prints and paintings.

The opening of Japan to foreigners in 1868 created a craze for all things Western and caused the Japanese to turn away from their own rich culture and artistic heritage. At this time, many beautiful paintings and sculptures were sold and ended up in Western museums and private collections. Exhibitions of these objects introduced the West to Japan and stimulated interest in travel to the Far East. Of course, the occupation of Japan by American troops at the end of World War II opened up greater opportunities than before for exploring and learning more about Japanese temples and their treasures. This interest was reflected in attendance at American museums. Interest in the East in general aroused the organization of exhibitions of works of Japanese art, selected from Japanese public and private collections and brought to America and Europe.

Scientific research in recent decades has done much to refute the notion that Japanese art is merely a reflection of Chinese art, and numerous Japanese publications in English have introduced the West to the ideals of the East.

The huge region, conventionally called the Far East, includes China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia and Tibet - countries that have a number of similar features, but at the same time significant differences in culture.

All countries of the Far East experienced the influence of the ancient civilizations of China and India, where, back in the 1st millennium BC, philosophical and religious teachings arose that laid the foundation for the idea of ​​nature as a comprehensive Cosmos - a living and spiritualized organism that lives according to its own laws. Nature found itself at the center of philosophical and artistic quests throughout the medieval period, and its laws were considered universal, determining the lives and relationships of people. The inner world of man was compared with the diverse manifestations of nature. This influenced the development of the symbolic method in the visual arts, defining its allegorical poetic language. In China, Japan and Korea, under the influence of such an attitude towards nature, types and genres of art were formed, architectural ensembles were built, closely connected with the surrounding landscape, gardening art was born, and, finally, landscape painting dawned. Under the influence of ancient Indian civilization, Buddhism began to spread, and Hinduism also spread in Mongolia and Tibet. These religious systems brought not only new ideas to the countries of the Far East, but also had a direct impact on the development of art. Thanks to Buddhism, a previously unknown new artistic language of sculpture and painting appeared in all countries of the region, ensembles were created, the characteristic feature of which was the interaction of architecture and fine arts.

The features of the depiction of Buddhist deities in sculpture and painting developed over many centuries as a special language of symbols that expressed ideas about the universe, moral laws and human destiny. In this way, the cultural experience and spiritual traditions of many peoples were consolidated and preserved. The images of Buddhist art embodied the ideas of the confrontation between good and evil, mercy, love and hope. All these qualities determined the originality and universal significance of the outstanding creations of Far Eastern artistic culture.

Japan is located on the Pacific Islands, stretching along the eastern coast of the Asian continent from north to south. The Japanese islands are located in an area prone to frequent earthquakes and typhoons. Residents of the islands are accustomed to constantly being on guard, being content with a modest life, and quickly rebuilding their homes and households after natural disasters. Despite natural disasters that constantly threaten the well-being of people, Japanese culture reflects the desire for harmony with the surrounding world, the ability to see the beauty of nature in large and small things.

In Japanese mythology, the divine consorts, Izanagi and Izanami, were considered the ancestors of everything in the world. From them came a triad of great gods: Amaterasu - the goddess of the Sun, Tsukiyomi - the goddess of the Moon and Susanoo - the god of storms and wind. According to the ideas of the ancient Japanese, deities did not have a visible appearance, but were embodied in nature itself - not only in the Sun and Moon, but also in mountains and rocks, rivers and waterfalls, trees and herbs, which were revered as spirits-kami (in words translated means divine wind in Japanese). This deification of nature persisted throughout the Middle Ages and was called Shinto - the way of the gods, becoming the Japanese national religion; Europeans call it Shintoism. The origins of Japanese culture go back to ancient times. The earliest works of art date back to the 4th...2nd millennium BC. The longest and most fruitful period for Japanese art was the Middle Ages (6th...19th centuries).

The design of a traditional Japanese house developed by the 17th...18th centuries. It is a wooden frame with three movable walls and one fixed one. The walls do not serve as a support, so they can be moved apart or even removed and serve as a window at the same time. In the warm season, the walls were a lattice structure covered with translucent paper that let in light, and in cold and rainy times they were covered or replaced with wooden panels. In the high humidity of the Japanese climate, the house must be ventilated from below. Therefore, it is raised 60 cm above ground level. To protect the support pillars from rotting, they were installed on stone foundations.

The lightweight wooden frame had the necessary flexibility, which reduced the destructive force of the shock during frequent earthquakes in the country. The roof, tile or reed, had large overhangs that protected the paper walls of the house from rain and the scorching summer sun, but did not block the low rays of the sun in winter, early spring and late autumn. There was a veranda under the roof canopy.

The floor of the living rooms was covered with mats - tatami, on which people mostly sat, rather than stood. Therefore, all the proportions of the house were oriented towards a sitting person. Since there was no permanent furniture in the house, they slept on the floor, on special thick mattresses, which were put away in closets during the day. They ate sitting on mats at low tables; they also served for various activities. Sliding internal partitions covered with paper or silk could divide the interior spaces depending on needs, which made it possible to use it more diversely, but it was impossible for each of its inhabitants to have complete privacy inside the house, which affected intra-family relationships in the Japanese family, and in a more general sense - on the peculiarities of the national character of the Japanese. An important detail of the house was a niche located near a fixed wall - tokonama, where a painting could hang or a composition of flowers - ikebana. It was the spiritual center of the house. The decoration of the niche revealed the individual qualities of the inhabitants of the house, their tastes and artistic inclinations.

An extension of the traditional Japanese house was the garden. It acted as a fence and at the same time connected the house with environment. When the outer walls of the house were moved apart, the boundary between the interior of the house and the garden disappeared and a feeling of closeness to nature and direct communication with it was created. This was an important feature of the national outlook. However, Japanese cities grew, the size of the garden decreased, and it was often replaced by a small symbolic composition of flowers and plants, which served the same role of bringing the home into contact with the natural world. japanese mythology house ikebana netsuke

The art of arranging flowers in vases - ikebbna (life of flowers) - dates back to the ancient custom of laying flowers on the altar of a deity, which spread to Japan with Buddhism in the 6th century. Most often, the composition in the style of that time - rikka (placed flowers) - consisted of a branch of pine or cypress and lotuses, roses, daffodils, mounted in ancient bronze vessels.

With the development of secular culture in the 10th...12th centuries, flower compositions were installed in the palaces and residential quarters of representatives of the aristocratic class. Special competitions for arranging bouquets became popular at the imperial court. In the second half of the 15th century, a new direction in the art of ikebana appeared, the founder of which was the master Ikenobo Senei. The works of the Ikenobo school were distinguished by their special beauty and sophistication; they were installed at home altars and presented as gifts. In the 16th century, with the spread of tea ceremonies, a special type of ikebana was formed to decorate the tokonom niche in the tea pavilion. The requirement for simplicity, harmony, restrained color range, applied to all objects of the tea cult, also extended to the design of flowers - chabana (ikebana for the tea ceremony). The famous tea master Senno Rikyu created a new, freer style - nageire (carelessly placed flowers), although it was in the apparent disorder that the particular complexity and beauty of the images of this style lay. One type of nageire was the so-called tsuribana, when plants were placed in a hanging boat-shaped vessel. Such compositions were presented to a person entering a position or finishing his studies, as they symbolized “exit into the open sea of ​​life.” In the 17th...19th centuries, the art of ikebana became widespread, and the custom of compulsory training of girls in the art of arranging bouquets arose. However, due to the popularity of ikebana, the compositions were simplified, and the strict rules of stilirikka had to be abandoned in favor of nageire, from which another new style emerged, seika or shoka (fresh flowers). At the end of the 19th century, master Ohara Ushin created the Moriban style, the main innovation of which was that flowers were placed in wide vessels.

In an ikebana composition, as a rule, there are three obligatory elements, indicating three principles: Heaven, Earth and Man. They can be embodied as a flower, a branch and grass. Their relationship with each other and additional elements creates works that are different in style and content. The artist’s task is not only to create a beautiful composition, but also to most fully convey in it his own thoughts about human life and his place in the world. The works of outstanding ikebana masters can express hope and sadness, spiritual harmony and sadness.

According to tradition, in ikebana, the season is always reproduced, and the combination of plants forms well-known symbolic wishes in Japan: pine and rose - longevity; peony and bamboo - prosperity and peace; chrysanthemum and orchid - joy; magnolia - spiritual purity, etc.

Miniature sculpture - netsuke - became widespread in the 18th...19th centuries as one of the types of decorative and applied art. Its appearance is due to the fact that the national Japanese costume - the kimono - does not have pockets and all the necessary small items (pipe, pouch, medicine box, etc.) are attached to the belt using a keychain-counterweight. Netsuke therefore necessarily has a hole for a cord, with the help of which the desired object is attached to it. Keychains in the form of sticks and buttons had been used before, but since the end of the 18th century, famous masters had already been working on the creation of netsuke, putting their signature on the works.

Netsuke is the art of the urban class, mass and democratic. Based on the subjects of netsuke, one can judge the spiritual needs, everyday interests, morals and customs of the townspeople. They believed in spirits and demons, which were often depicted in miniature sculpture. They loved figurines of the “seven gods of happiness,” among which the most popular were the god of wealth Daikoku and the god of happiness Fukuroku. The constant subjects of the netsuke were the following: a cracked eggplant with many seeds inside - a wish for large male offspring, two ducks - a symbol of family happiness. A huge number of netsuke are dedicated to everyday themes and everyday life of the city. These are traveling actors and magicians, street vendors, women engaged in various activities, wandering monks, wrestlers, even the Dutch in their exotic, from the Japanese point of view, clothing - wide-brimmed hats, camisoles and trousers. Distinguished by their thematic diversity, netsuke retained their original function as a keychain, and this purpose dictated to the craftsmen a compact shape without fragile protruding parts, rounded, and pleasant to the touch. This is also related to the choice of material: not very heavy, durable, consisting of one piece. The most common materials were various types of wood, ivory, ceramics, lacquer and metal.

Japanese painting is very diverse not only in content, but also in form: these are wall paintings, screen paintings, vertical and horizontal scrolls executed on silk and paper, album sheets and fans.

Ancient painting can be judged only by references in written documents. The earliest surviving outstanding works date back to the Heian period (794...1185). These are illustrations of the famous “The Tale of Prince Genji” by the writer Murasaki Shikibu. The illustrations were made on several horizontal scrolls and supplemented with text. They are attributed to the brushes of the artist Fujiwara Takayoshi (first half of the 12th century).

A characteristic feature of the culture of that era, created by a rather narrow circle of the aristocratic class, was the cult of beauty, the desire to find in all manifestations of material and spiritual life their inherent charm, sometimes elusive and elusive. The painting of that time, which later received the name Yamato-e (literally translated as Japanese painting), conveyed not an action, but a state of mind. When the stern and courageous representatives of the military class came to power, the decline of Heian era culture began. A narrative element was established in scroll painting: these are legends of miracles full of dramatic episodes, biographies of preachers of the Buddhist faith, and scenes of warriors’ battles. In the 14th...15th centuries, under the influence of the teachings of the Zen sect with its special attention to nature, landscape painting began to develop (initially under the influence of Chinese models).

Over the course of a century and a half, Japanese artists mastered the Chinese art system, making monochrome landscape painting the property of national art. Its highest flowering is associated with the name of the outstanding master Toyo Oda (1420...1506), better known under the pseudonym Sesshu. In his landscapes, using only the finest shades of black ink, he managed to reflect all the multicolored world of nature and its countless states: the moisture-saturated atmosphere of early spring, the invisible but perceptible wind and cold autumn rain, the motionless frozenness of winter.

The 16th century opens the era of the so-called late Middle Ages, which lasted three and a half centuries. At this time, wall paintings became widespread, decorating the palaces of the country's rulers and large feudal lords. One of the founders of the new direction in painting was the famous master Kano Eitoku, who lived in the second half of the 16th century. Wood engraving (woodcut), which flourished in the 18th...19th centuries, became another type of fine art of the Middle Ages. Engraving, like genre painting, was called ukiyo-e (pictures of the everyday world). In addition to the artist who created the drawing and wrote his name on the finished sheet, a carver and a printer participated in the creation of the engraving. At first, the engraving was monochromatic; it was hand-colored by the artist himself or the buyer. Then two-color printing was invented, and in 1765 the artist Suzuki Harunobu (1725...1770) was the first to use multi-color printing. To do this, the carver placed tracing paper with a pattern on a specially prepared longitudinal cut board (made of pear, cherry or Japanese boxwood) and cut out the required number of printed boards depending on the color scheme of the engraving. Sometimes there were more than 30 of them. After this, the printer, selecting the desired shades, made prints on special paper. His skill was to achieve an exact match of the contours of each color obtained from different wooden boards. All engravings were divided into two groups: theatrical, which depicted actors of the Japanese classical theater Kabuki in various roles, and everyday, depicting beauties and scenes from their lives. The most famous master of theatrical engraving was Toshushai Sharaku, who depicted the faces of actors in close-up, emphasizing the features of the role they played, the characteristic features of the person reincarnated as the character in the play: anger, fear, cruelty, treachery.

Such outstanding artists as Suzuki Harunobu and Kitagawa Utamaro became famous in everyday life engraving. Utamaro was the creator of female images that embodied the national ideal of beauty. His heroines seem to have frozen for a moment and will now continue their smooth, graceful movement. But this pause is the most expressive moment when the tilt of the head, the gesture of the hand, the silhouette of the figure convey the feelings by which they live.

The most famous master of engraving was the brilliant artist Katsushika Hokusai (1776...1849). Hokusai's work is based on the centuries-old pictorial culture of Japan. Hokusai produced more than 30,000 drawings and illustrated about 500 books. Already a seventy-year-old man, Hokusai created one of the most significant works - the “36 Views of Fuji” series, which allows him to be placed on a par with the most outstanding artists of world art. By showing Mount Fuji - the national symbol of Japan - from different places, Hokusai reveals for the first time the image of the homeland and the image of the people in their unity. The artist saw life as a single process in all the diversity of its manifestations, starting from the simple feelings of a person, his daily activities and ending with the surrounding nature with its elements and beauty. The work of Hokusai, which absorbed the centuries-old experience of the art of his people, is the last peak in the artistic culture of medieval Japan, its remarkable result.

Japan is a very interesting state, known for a wide variety of traditions and customs. The geographical position of the Land of the Rising Sun made it somewhat isolated from other states, due to which it developed without regard to European countries. The culture of Japan is extremely rich and diverse. Unique Japanese traditions were formed under the influence of historically important events. Japan gradually turned into a powerful, united state with characteristic features and a certain mentality of the population.

Basic Aspects of Japanese Culture

The country's culture is manifested in many spheres of society. In Japan its aspects are;

For the Japanese, the process of drinking tea is not a simple satisfaction of the physiological needs of the body, but a real cult. The tea ceremony in Japan is accompanied by special attributes and contains a lot of traditions. Such a reverent attitude, it would seem, to the everyday process took its development from the meditation of Buddhist monks. They are the ones who brought so much significance to the tea drinking process.

For Europeans, the concept of “kimono” characterizes the national clothing of Japan. However, in the land of the rising sun itself there are two meanings of this word - in the narrow and broad senses. The word “kimono” in Japan refers not only to the national costume, but also to all clothing in general. Under the kimono, as a rule, a special robe and seven belts are worn. The kimono worn in summer is called yukata. Depending on the age of the woman, the model of clothing may vary.

In Japan, two religious movements are successfully preached at once - Shintoism and Buddhism. Shintoism appeared in ancient Japan; it is based on the worship of various creatures. Buddhism, in turn, is divided into several varieties. In Japan there are many schools promoting one or another movement of Buddhism.

Rock gardens are of particular importance to Japanese culture. They are not only an architectural creation that attracts the attention of tourists, but also a place of spiritual growth. Here the Japanese find enlightenment from contemplating stone structures arranged in a special order. Rock gardens include a specific design that only an enlightened person can unravel.

Tango no sekku is a celebration of boys. It is dedicated not just to all small male representatives, but also to the masculinity and strength of the entire Japanese people. It is customary to celebrate the holiday in the spring, when nature wakes up and delights with its beauty. On Tango no Sekku day, boys are cared for by their parents. A father must tell his son about all the Japanese warriors and their exploits. And his mother sets the table for him with delicious food.

Cherry blossoms are considered the most beautiful natural phenomenon. Many tourists come here precisely to enjoy the contemplation of a flowering plant. In the spring, large crowds of people can be seen in Japanese parks. Many families go on picnics and watch the beauty of Japanese cherry trees.

One of the unique traditions of the country includes bowing. They personify the rules of good manners. It is not customary for the Japanese to say goodbye; instead, they bow as many times as the interlocutor did.

Samurai represent a certain class of society, which was formed under the influence of traditions and customs. It has a direct connection with the culture of the country. Samurai are warriors who perform a certain service, which can be military, security or domestic. In any of these cases, samurai personify the courage, masculinity and nobility of the Japanese people.

The process of formation of the culture of ancient Japan

The culture of ancient Japan began to develop with the birth of the Japanese language and writing. The land of the rising sun borrowed the basis for this from China. Japanese writing also contains hieroglyphs that a foreign citizen will not be able to understand. After some time in Japanese New words, sounds and phrases began to be added. So it was completely transformed, but common features with China can still be traced.

The country's religiosity also dates back to ancient times. Shintoism was a consequence of the development of various mythologies. At the moment, this teaching promotes the cult of leaders and dead people. Buddhism has such deep roots that the opinions of scientists and historians about the emergence of this type of religion vary greatly.

Japanese art

Almost all types of art practiced in Japan carry one main idea - calm and relaxation. It is precisely the harmony of a person with himself that contains art, regardless of the method of presenting information. Many types of art known throughout the world began their development in Japan. Among them we can highlight origami - the ability to fold various shapes from paper.

Another popular part of Japanese art is ikebana. This is the skill of forming bouquets of flowers using special technology. From here came an equally popular activity called bonsai. This is the creation of various compositions from dwarf trees. In Omiya, not far from Tokyo, there is a whole Bonsai park. Each dwarf tree presented here is unique and beautiful in its own way.

Japanese painting deserves special significance, since each painting carries a hidden meaning. As a rule, bright colors, contrasting transitions and clear lines are used as design. Japan also has the art of calligraphy. This is the skill of aesthetically beautiful writing of hieroglyphs. Applied art is also widespread in Japan. There is an entire museum in Tokyo dedicated to this craft. Here you can see products made of paper, glass or metal. And this is not a complete list of materials used for this purpose.

The Japanese style of interior design also deserves special attention. It includes functionality and simplicity, along with originality of execution. In addition, interior design carries religious philosophy, just like any other form of Japanese art.

Architecture of Japan

Architectural structures in Japan are, in one way or another, associated with religion. At first, temple buildings were most often devoid of any flowers. This was due to the use of unpainted wood in construction. Later they began to use red and blue shades.

Wood is considered the main material for architectural buildings in Japan. This is due to the fact that the reserve of this resource in the country is quite large. In addition to the fact that wood conducts heat well and absorbs moisture, it is also practical in case of earthquakes, which occur quite often in Japan. If a stone house is very difficult to recreate after destruction, then a wooden one is much easier.

The main feature of Japanese architecture is the presence of smooth geometric shapes. Most often, these are triangles and rectangles. It is almost impossible to find smooth and round lines in any structure. The main principle on which the Japanese arrange their homes is the inseparable existence of the inside and the outside of the house. This applies to Japanese gardens. They should be decorated in exactly the same style as the house itself. Otherwise, it is considered bad form and complete bad taste. The Japanese pay special attention to their gardens.

Japanese music

In terms of musical development, Japan looked at other countries using some kind of musical instruments. But later she modernized them under the influence of local tastes and traditions. The first to influence the formation of classical music in Japan was the local folklore of Dengaku, mixed with foreign influences and giving birth to the music that is currently familiar to Japan.

The religious side of the issue also made its contribution to the musical origins. Thanks to Christianity, playing the organ began to spread. And Buddhism promoted playing the flute.

Currently, classical music has gained popularity in Japan. Many representatives of this creative cell travel abroad in Japan. These include Goto Midori, Ozawa Seiji and Uchida Mitsuko. Relatively recently, halls designed for comfortable listening to classical music were opened in Japan. These include Kiyo Hall, Osaka Symphony Hall, Orchard, etc.

Household traditions of Japan

The Japanese are a well-mannered people who observe their traditions and customs. Treating yourself and others with respect is considered the norm in Japan. From childhood, children are taught good manners, the basic values ​​of the Japanese people are explained to them, and they are educated in every possible way. And it all benefits society. Any tourist who comes to the land of the rising sun from another country is surprised at how friendly, friendly and well-mannered the Japanese are.

Unlike European countries, Japan has long had a ban on smoking in public places. This also applies to private property. Smoking near other people is only permitted if they have given their consent.

Among other things, the Japanese strictly follow all the rules of hygiene that society dictates to them. For example, in any room, including religious buildings, there are special straw mats. You cannot walk on them in shoes; they are considered not only an interior decoration, but also a real sacrilege. Also, the Japanese decided to protect themselves from possible bacteria that come from the toilet on their feet. In any public place and in apartments there are special slippers for the toilet, which do not allow harmful germs to be transferred to other rooms.

For the Japanese, eating is not considered a process of life, but a real cult. Before eating, the Japanese always wipe their hands with a special towel moistened with water, which is called oshibori. Table setting does not occur in any random order, but according to a special pattern. Even each device has its place. The Japanese divide them into male and female, and this is very important for them. In Japan, spoons are used only for eating o-zoni soup, which is prepared for the New Year; the Japanese prefer to drink the rest of the first courses exclusively from special bowls. Moreover, smacking your lips during a meal is not considered bad manners. It is believed that this way the taste of the dish is better revealed.

The relevance of good manners in Japan is proven by the following rules:

• It is necessary to discuss the place and time of the meeting in advance. In Japan, being late is considered impudence beyond the bounds of decency.
• You cannot interrupt your interlocutor; you need to wait patiently for the person to speak out, then begin to express your opinion.
• If you call the wrong number, you must apologize.
• If someone came to your aid, then you definitely need to thank him.
• Some guests of the Japanese may be considered honorary. They are even allocated a special place at the table, which, as a rule, is located farthest from the entrance to the room.
• When giving a gift to Japanese people, you should apologize for being modest, despite what it represents. These are the rules, they should not be broken.
• While sitting at the dinner table, men can cross their legs, but women are strictly prohibited from doing so. The legs should be tucked and pointed in one direction.

Also among the traditions in everyday life in Japan is the veneration of older people. It doesn’t matter what a person’s profession, income, appearance or character traits are, if he is older, then he must be treated with respect. Old age in Japan evokes respect and pride. This means that the person has come a long way and now deserves honor.

Help the site: Press the buttons