History of dance. History of dance: Ancient world, Greece, Rome Dance in the fine arts of ancient Greece

Ministry of Culture of Ukraine

Kharkov State Academy of Culture

Department of Modern Choreography

Test

Course "History of choreographic art"

On the topic: Dance art of the countries of the Ancient World.

Performed:

Part-time student

Faculty of Choreographic Art

Group 5C

Vasilenko Victoria

Checked:

Senior teacher Kurdupova E.N.

Introduction

Dance genres of the Ancient World

Ancient Egypt

Ancient India

Ancient Greece

Ancient Rome

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Dance is one of the oldest forms of art. Ancient forms of dance arose in the process of practical human labor activity: the labor process discovered the meaning of rhythm, movements subordinated to rhythm gave birth to dance, which is one of the earliest manifestations of this culture.

The widespread use of dance and dance music during the ancient world is evidenced by many sources, such as myths, epics, images and archaeological data. Thus, descriptions of ancient Greek dances can be found in Aristotle, Philostratus, in the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, in the comedies of Aristophanes, etc.; Lucian wrote a whole treatise “Dialogue on Dance”. Cicero and Horace wrote about the dances of the Romans. In the 2nd half of the 1st century. BC. Indian classical dance received theoretical justification, which indicates a high level of its development. The most ancient of the surviving Indian treatises, Natyashastra (Science of Theatre, c. 1st century BC), examined the problems of dance, music, and in close connection with the problems of drama.

Numerous images of dancers and dancers on bas-reliefs, in vase paintings, and sculpture also tell about the nature of the dances of those times.

In ancient civilizations, dance and music played a large social and ideological role. There are many references to dancing in the Bible (for example, in the tales of King David, who “jumped and danced”). Like music, dance often received a cosmogonic interpretation, deep philosophical understanding, and was seen as revealing the essence of things. Music and dance were given a connotation of exclusivity and inaccessibility, and the origin of the dance was considered divine. In ancient India, dance was often called the dance of the gods. According to Hinduism, their creator and first performer was the god Shiva. In his incarnation as Nataraja, he, performing a cosmic dance, destroyed everything old in the Universe and at the same time opened a new cycle of life. In Ancient Greece, diverse dance forms were closely associated with the cult of the god Dionysus: rituals, processions and sacraments, which were of a mass nature, were unique choreographic compositions. On the other hand, dance and dance music have always been the focus of emotionality and eroticism; love is one of the main themes of dances of all nations. Moreover, the sensory principle, according to prevailing philosophical concepts, was a form of revealing the spiritual essence.

Music and dance have long been a means of education, so teaching these arts became widespread in the countries of the Ancient World. At the turn of the 1st millennium in China, Confucianism had a great influence - the official ideology of that time, which attached special importance to dance in the ethical education of a person. Dance had high ethics in Ancient Greece, where the purpose of dance was seen in the improvement and ennoblement of man. Occupying a significant place in the life of the people, choreographic art was not only part of the cult (slow ceremonial dances in honor of Apollo, ecstatic Bacchic dances dedicated to Bacchus, etc.), but also a means of education (for example, “pyrrhic” - military athletic dances of Spartan youths , contributing to the harmonious development of the body). “Dancing develops flexibility, strength and beauty,” said Plato. Aristotle defined the meaning of dance in the following words: “Dance imitates morals, passions and customs with its rhythmic movements and embodies invisible thought.”

In general, information about the dance genres of those times is quite scattered and not numerous. Often we can talk not about specific genres, but about groups of genres that are distinguished depending on what purpose they had in people's lives. With the advent of class society, dance and dance music were divided into their folk, everyday and professional (ceremonial, theatrical) varieties.

Dance genres of the Ancient World Folk dances for a long time remained connected with labor processes, pagan and everyday rituals (dance pantomimes in Ancient China and Ancient India, ancient Greek Dionysian games, Russian Maslenitsa games, etc.) and accompanied family, city and national holidays, every event in a person’s life. The genre of folk dances is one of the broadest. Diverse in theme, compositional design, and composition of performers, they had a huge influence on the emergence of stage dance. First of all, it is worth highlighting ritual dances and games that reflect labor processes and have been performed for a long time in strict accordance with the time of certain agricultural work. For example, often at that time farmers, trying to bring about the rain necessary for crops, recreated musical and plastic pictures of floating clouds, rumbles of thunder, flowing streams of water, etc. In parallel with the theme of labor, they also revealed a love theme. Game dances for a long time kept traces of everyday life, labor and ancient pagan beliefs, and even partially (in a transformed form) have survived to this day (Russian game song-dance “And we sowed millet”). The most ancient dances also include hunting dances, which copy the movements and habits of animals and birds and are usually performed before and after a hunt. They set themselves a clear, simple task - to magically influence the results of the hunt, that is, to appease the deity, strengthen self-confidence and intimidate the hunted animal and, thus, win, get food for themselves and the tribe. Mad jumps, imitation of the animal's habits, frightening screams and stamping feet created a conventional picture of the hunt. The man believed that dance really, practically helped him in carrying out one of the most important functions of his life.

The struggle of peoples among themselves led to clashes between them and gave rise to war dances. Often these were complex choreographic compositions reproducing battles and various combat formations. Participation in them meant agreement to go on a hike. In the hands of the dancers were bows, arrows, shields, lighted torches, swords, spears, and darts. The plots of such heroic dances, as a rule, reflected myths and legends about heroes. Ritual, cult dances played a huge role in the development of dance art and, in particular, stage dance. The reverence for the abstract forces of nature and the deification of animals, characteristic of the worldview of man of that time, were reflected in dance movements, thereby contributing to the development of stylization techniques and the conventions of plastic language. The lines of movement of the dancers, their gestures and poses had a mysterious sacred meaning. Man, wanting to explain natural phenomena incomprehensible to him, attributed their occurrence to the will of mysterious higher beings (deities) and, in order to achieve favorable conditions for his work, tried in every possible way to please the gods with special magical actions - rituals. The ancient Chinese had, for example, dances of sacrifices to the sky and its spirits, dances imitating the movement of waters shaken by the wind. The Egyptians had an astral dance, which was danced by twelve priestesses around the altar, depicting the twelve signs of the zodiac. As an obligatory component of the divine service, religious dances had a majestic, strict, solemn character; movements and music were often strictly regulated and determined by the peculiarities of the ceremony. Having arisen in the depths of everyday art, they subsequently went significantly beyond the scope of the applied genre and required professionals in the field of dance and music for their performance. The professionalization of musical and dance art led to the emergence of theatrical (stage) dance genres. To perform such dances and their musical accompaniment, dancers and musicians of a high professional level were required (they were usually raised from childhood, receiving a profession by inheritance). For example, in the Indian school of classical dance “Kathak”, the musician actually directed the movement of the dance, changing its tempo and rhythm, and the dancer’s skill was determined by her ability to accurately follow the music. In ancient Greek tragedy already in the 4th century BC. e. Professional singers and dancers performed. It is no coincidence that many treatises placed high artistic demands on the art of dancing. Lucian demanded from the “round dance leader” knowledge of all the sciences and arts known at that time. “One must know rhythm and music in order to give measure to one’s movements, geometry in order to construct them, philosophy and rhetoric in order to depict morals and arouse passions, painting and sculpture in order to compose poses and groups; as for mythology, he must know perfectly the events from chaos and the creation of the world to the present day.” A special place among the dance genres and forms of the ancient world and antiquity was occupied by round dancing - a syncretic type of folk art that combines music (song or instrumental), dance and play action in different proportions. Cult and everyday round dances described the shape of a circle - the oldest perfect form, which symbolized the solar deity, the cycle of nature, and the change of generations. The performance of this mass dance was accompanied by a choral song. The choreographic pattern was reproduced by girls and boys holding each other's hands.

Ancient Egypt

In Ancient Egypt, great attention was paid to the art of dance. This is evidenced by paintings and bas-reliefs on the walls of tombs that have been preserved from ancient times. On them you can see ritual dances, and dances at everyday celebrations, and processions of warriors. As a rule, next to the dancing people there is a group of musicians who play various percussion instruments, as well as the simplest types of wind and string instruments. Based on the images found, one can judge the style of ancient Egyptian dances. Firstly, it is noticeable that most often men and women dance separately. Moreover, some researchers believe that most of the dances were performed by women. Among the dancing men there were mostly slaves or priests of some cults, performing only the mimic part of the ritual. Secondly, the movements are very graphic, with elements of acrobatics, but at the same time quite elegant. The formations of the dancers within the group correspond to geometric shapes (circle, square, triangle) or a straight line. Thirdly, ritual dances are predominant - religious, held in honor of deities during worship, and ritual dances (at weddings and funerals). The movements of such dances were strictly regulated; any improvisational element in the performance was completely excluded. Information has survived to this day about the Sacred Astral Dance of the Zodiac, which was extremely widespread among the ancient Egyptians. N. Vashkevich in his book “The History of Choreography of All Ages and Peoples” gives the following description of it: “At night, under a clear starry sky, around the altar on which the fire was burning, twelve girls, dancer-priestesses, gathered and, holding hands, walked around it in a round dance , depicting the twelve signs of the Zodiac around the sun (the god Ra), which the altar represented. The round dance moved slowly, just as the movement of the luminaries occurs slowly; then each performer mimicked what was associated with the appearance of each constellation (thus, the harvest of the autumn months was depicted with appropriate joyful gestures, etc.); Perhaps at this time the round dance stopped, giving time for mimic play. String music gave rhythm to this slow, barely moving dance.” The same author gives an example of another religious dance - the dance of Osiris. She “mimically expressed the ideas of the greatness and mercy of the deity and was often replaced by pantomime, depicting in the faces the episodes of the birth, adolescence of the deity, his love and union with Isis and his murder of evil brothers; all this was accompanied by slow, solemn music. But then the music and singing, and after them the dancing, turns into fortissimo, expressing delight to the deity: jumping with wide hand gestures, bending the body, shaking raised arms... In front of the temple, from which the colossal statue of Osiris is visible and where Apis is introduced, the dancers begin quickly spin around and fall on their faces, and after them all the people fall on their faces.” In the dance culture of Ancient Egypt, in addition to ritual dances, researchers also identify other groups of genres: - non-religious dances of public celebrations (at festivals, at feasts); - dancing in harems; - military dances; - Street dance. The public dances of the privileged classes differed significantly from the dances of the common people - their performance style was solemn and sedate. It was believed that it was generally indecent for a noble person to participate in dances at public holidays; he should only condescendingly observe the amusements of ordinary people. At one time, dance entertainment in the high society of Ancient Egypt was even officially prohibited due to the prevailing opinion that dancing had a negative impact on the morals of the population and had no practical benefit. On the contrary, dancing was extremely popular among the people. Not only festivals, but also numerous processions (for example, during labor processes) were filled with dance elements. The movements were characterized by greater naturalness, simplicity and roughness, and the composition of the dances was characterized by less regimented figures. For a long time, the art of dance in Ancient Egypt developed in isolation, based on its own traditions, practically not feeling the influence of nearby countries. From 1500-1000 BC. features of the dances of Assyria, surrounding African countries and even India became noticeable in it. In turn, the dance of the Egyptians had a reverse influence on other cultures (including ancient Greece), both directly on the choreographic component of the dance (its movements, forms) and on its artistic side (the mythology underlying the dances, etc. ).

Ancient India

The dance art of Ancient India arose as part of a religious cult. The temples that have survived to this day contain on their walls numerous sculptures and frescoes of dancing figures, both ordinary people and various gods. For example, on the facades of the Shiva temple in Chidambaram (South India) sculptures are depicted in all 108 canonical mudras (positions) of the classical Bharat Natyam dance. Even the very structure of temples, in which special areas and halls were allocated for dancing, testifies to the enormous role of dance in the life of Indians. The actions of the temple dancers devadasis (later in the European tradition called bayaderes) and their musicians had a sacred meaning and symbolized divine enlightenment, and acted as a way to achieve liberation from an endless chain of rebirths. In numerous myths and sacred ancient Indian texts, dance acquired symbolic meaning and deep philosophical justification. In this regard, we can mention, first of all, the idea of ​​​​the dancing Shiva-Nataraja, whose main mission - the destruction of worlds and their subsequent creation - is realized through dancing. One of the first dancers in Buddhist texts are apsaras - heavenly beauties-dancers in the kingdom of Indra, who, with the help of unsurpassed dancing, singing, playing music and love, were called upon to destroy the kingdoms of the gods and the asceticism of the sages. Their images were embodied in many frescoes, sculptures and bas-reliefs of ancient Indian temples. For a long time, dance in India has been divided into classical and folk. And if numerous folk examples existed in the “oral” tradition, the movements of classical dance were deeply developed and canonized already in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC. Thus, the treatise “Natyashastra” talks about “nritya” - an expressive pantomime dance, the basis of which was a certain plot (from myths, legends), and about “nritta” - pure dance for the sake of dance, in which the performer completely surrenders to the elements of rhythms. The classical styles of Indian dance, which became an indispensable element of ancient Indian theater, also had their origins in ritual dances. Thus, Bharata Natyam was performed by devadasis in Shiva temples as a dance-prayer, dance-conversation. In Kathak, based on mythological stories from the life of the god Krishna and his wife Radha, Brahmin priests expounded the history of their faith through dance and pantomime. Another dance, Manipuri, was dedicated to the relationship between the god Krishna and his wife Radha. Kakhkali is a story-art, pantomimic dance-drama, illustrated legends from the ancient Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.

Ancient Greece

The most studied and systematized is the dance art of Ancient Greece, the nature of which is understood thanks to a huge number of archaeological finds (with numerous images of dancing people) and descriptions in literary sources. True, in most cases only brief descriptions of the dances are found or only names are mentioned, indicating in honor of which gods or for what event the dance was performed. The names of both the dance genres themselves and individual figures that have survived to this day are quite numerous (over 200). As a rule, men and women in Ancient Greece danced separately from each other, and only boys and girls could form a common round dance. Researchers identify the following types of dances that existed in Ancient Greece: - religious (moderate and orgiastic); - gymnastic and military, educational purposes; - facial expressions; - theatrical; - ritual (for example, wedding); - household. Like other peoples of ancient times, dancing and various kinds of acrobatic and gymnastic tricks were an indispensable attribute of the ancient Greek religious cult. Each deity could have its own separate dance ritual. Thus, among the earliest mentions one can find information about the dance of Phrygian origin Aloenes, which was performed by the priestesses of Cybele in honor of her daughter Ceres. There were other dances of this cult - Anthema, Bookolos, Epicredros and many local varieties. Dances praising Aphrodite were widespread - decent, restrained, perfect, just like their patroness. Ritual processions in Ancient Greece were also accompanied by dancing, music and chants. One of these dance-processions was Komos, whose participants - komastas - performed casual and frivolous movements to the accompaniment of citharas and flutes. But perhaps the most popular in the daily life of the ancient Greeks were religious celebrations dedicated to Apollo and Dionysus and accompanied by numerous dances, varied in form and character. Moreover, the dances associated with the cult of Apollo differed significantly from the dances of the Dionysian (Bacchanalian) festivals: in the first case, their style was more ceremonial, sedate, and solemn; in the second - more free, passionate and even erotic. A similar opposition later clearly manifested itself in professional art, primarily in the field of ancient Greek theater (dances of tragedy and comedy). Among educational gymnastic dances that play a big role in instilling courage and patriotism in young people, one can highlight military dances, in particular pyrrhic dances (pyrrhic dances) and related pyrrhic dances. The name "pyrrhic" is believed to come from the word "pyra", meaning the fire around which Achilles allegedly danced at the funeral of Patroclus. Early forms of pyrrhichi were known in Crete as early as 2000-1500. BC e. Gradually penetrating into Ancient Greece, pyrrhich became extremely widespread in all its regions, especially in Sparta and Athens, where it was one of the elements in the education of young men and warriors. Complex movements of a gymnastic nature in this dance were supposed to help the harmonious development of the human body. “The figures, movements and manipulations of weapons to the beat of music, to the sound of a flute, were very diverse. The performers reproduced military actions and individual battles, as if during real battles” (Khudekov S. History of Dance. T. 1. St. Petersburg, 1913). Later, pyrrhiha began to be performed by professional dancers during feast entertainment; its character acquired an element of enchantment and spectacular splendor, and the name of the genre began to be used in relation to any ensemble dance. War dances include the Phrygian dance Corybantum. It received its name from the mythical predecessors of the priests of Cybele or Rhea in Phrygia, called “Corybants”. With the help of the ringing of their weapons, they drove away the dark forces. The performers who portrayed the Corybantes danced naked, with a shield and a helmet, and sometimes reached the same frenzy as the Bacchante priestesses - the Maenads. Corybantum is also known as the Dance of the Curetes - this is what the Corybantes were called in Crete. Pyrrhich was also close to another type of ancient Greek dance - Gymnopaedia. Essentially gymnastic exercises to the sounds of a flute or lyre, it was performed by naked young men in the agora in Sparta during one of the annual holidays. The gymnopedia figures resembled the movements and positions used in wrestling and boxing. Theatrical performances of ancient times were a combination of dramatic action, poetic recitation, singing, dancing, gesticulation, and facial movements. The choir was entrusted with singing and dancing in ancient Greek drama. His movements (as a rule, sometimes in one direction, sometimes in the opposite direction) could be marching in nature (parod and exodus) or round dancing (stasima). Each type of theatrical performance in Ancient Greece was characterized by its own specific range of dance genres. There were no virtuoso elements in the dances of the tragedy; the movements of the actors were characterized by conventionality and inactivity, and the expressive nature of gestures in the more animated episodes. In comedy performances, the dances were virtuoso, technically complex and often had a frantic, rough, and sometimes obscene character. Among the many genres of ancient Greek theater, several fundamental ones should be highlighted - emmelia, kordak and sikkinida. Emmelia (Emmeleia) is originally a round dance of cult purpose (often at the bedside of a dying person), solemn, majestic and sublime in nature, at a slow or measured pace. Unlike pyrrhic dances, it was performed by women and was distinguished by the beauty of its forms and grace of plasticity. The movements of the dancers' hands were especially expressive - complex in pattern and expressive in character, while his legs and body were relatively motionless. Having originated as a religious dance, emmelia subsequently became an integral part of ancient Greek tragedy. The main dance genre of comedy was the kordax, whose movements included various spins and jumps at a frantic pace. Although it was related to the content of the play, it was still not a simple illustration of the action. Most likely, the kordak consisted of inserted comic scenes, a kind of choreographic buffoonery. Interestingly, this dance was considered unworthy of serious men. The dance of satirical drama - Sikinnis, which was oriented towards the tastes of ordinary people and often represented a parody of many aspects of public life, had much in common with it. In addition to the dancing itself, in satirical drama and comedy there could be pantomime dances, in which all the twists and turns of the plot were conveyed with the help of conventional gestures and facial expressions. The following dances are also mentioned in the ancient Greek sources that have survived to this day: Epilinios (Epilinios, Epilinios) - a Dionysian dance that was performed by climbing onto a vat while crushing grapes with their feet. Imeneos (name, Imeneos) - wedding dance of the bride with her mother and friends. It was distinguished by its impetuous character, fast pace and the presence of many turns. Ierakio - women's dance at festivals and celebrations in honor of the goddess Era. Hormos (Ormos, Hormos) according to Lucian was a dance that united men and women one after another in a chain. The procession was led by a young man who demonstrated his dancing abilities and military training through various movements. And the girl following him was an example of decency for all the other dancing women. Iporchima is a Cretan dance, which later became widespread in Sparta, which combined dance, pantomime, singing and music. It was performed by boys and girls to the sounds of their own singing. Geranos is a round dance that was also performed by boys and girls and illustrated the myth of Theseus and the labyrinth. The movements were circular (like a serpentine), the figures were twisting, in imitation of the intricate corridors of a labyrinth. At the head of the procession was a musician playing the cithara and acting as Theseus. The name “geranos” - translated as “crane” - indicated that the performers imitated the movements of this bird, sometimes bending down and squatting, sometimes stretching up to their full height. From the movements and elements of the above-described genres, many other dances arose, used during public celebrations and holidays, as well as in the everyday life of the people. Later, most of them were borrowed by the ancient Etruscans and Romans, but at the same time underwent significant transformation: in the new social conditions, the dances lost their previously highly artistic appearance, their former grace and beauty.

Ancient Rome

The dance of Ancient Rome inherited the traditions of ancient Greek art of the Hellenistic period. However, the ennobling and sacred purpose of the dance gradually ceases to be relevant. Under the influence of the tastes and demands of ancient Roman society, which strove for luxury and enrichment, dance becomes simple entertainment, losing rigor and purity. Even dances borrowed from the Greeks acquired a much more sensual, frivolous, and sometimes even vulgar character. In Rome, during the heyday of the great empire, the influence of other dance traditions was felt - Etruscan, Egyptian, Asian. Thus, for some time the Etruscan ritual dances Lupercalia and Ambarvalia were widespread. Pyrrhic dances, ritual dances (but in honor of the Roman gods - for example, Mars, Venus), ritual dances-processions associated with ancient fertility cults and gradually developing into public holidays (for example, Saturnalia) were still performed. The general style of these spectacles is a combination of grandiose extravaganza and extreme naturalism. Thus, the Dance of Hymen, borrowed by the Romans from the Greeks, was such an obscene spectacle that the authorities even legally persecuted those who performed it or taught it. Theatrical performances of Ancient Rome had a similar character. Over time, the lack of any aesthetic and philosophical basis in the understanding of dance as an art led to the fact that it simply stopped developing. As a result, pantomime came to the fore. From one to a hundred people could participate in it. Acting out complex mythological scenes in front of the audience with the help of facial expressions, gestures and movements (while a choir hidden behind the stage sang and explained what was being depicted), the artists performed a kind of pantomimic dance. But, despite the obvious continuity between dancing in the ancient Greek theater and Roman pantomime, excessive naturalism and illustrativeness did not allow pantomime to rise to the level of high art, such as classical dance achieved in Ancient Greece.

In no historical era, in any country in the world, has anyone extolled dance as much as the ancient Greeks, who saw in it “the unity of mental and physical beauty” and considered dance a wonderful gift of the gods. And the ancient Greek deities themselves enjoyed dancing. It was believed that Apollo himself, the god of Art, wrote the first rules of the art of dance. The ancient Greeks were so sensitive to dance that they made the muse Terpsichore “responsible” for the art of dancing and began to depict her as a dancing girl in a light tunic with an olive in her hands. Homer argued that there are three most innocent pleasures in the world - sleep, love and dancing. Plato: “Dancing develops strength, flexibility and beauty.” Dancing was a compulsory subject in gymnasiums, and a free citizen who did not know how to dance was subject to ridicule and condemnation. The poses and movements in the dance should be beautiful and harmonious, in addition, the dance should clearly express the mood, thoughts and feelings.

Sacred dances were performed to the sounds of the lyre and were distinguished by their austere beauty. Holidays and dances were dedicated to different gods: Dionysus, goddess Aphrodite, Athena. They reflected certain days of the working calendar year. Dances in honor of the Greek god of fertility and winemaking, Dionysus, were characterized by uncontrollable riotous joy. Dionysia was celebrated in the spring, when nature came to life.

For the first time in the history of dance, a treatise was written about the art of ancient Greek dance - a study on this type of creativity. The author of the treatise, Lucian, reflected on the role and significance of dance in human life, spoke about the requirements that are presented to a person who decides to devote himself to the art of dancing. “The art of dancing requires an ascent to the highest levels of all sciences: not only music, but also rhythm, geometry and especially philosophy, both natural and moral... A dancer needs to know everything!” .

Military dances played a major role in instilling courage, patriotism, and a sense of duty among youth in Ancient Greece. Usually they were performed by two people, but there were such mass pyrrhs in which only young men danced, and sometimes their partners danced with them. These dances reproduced the battle and various military formations. These were complex choreographic compositions. In the hands of the dancers were bows, arrows, shields, swords, spears, darts, and lighted torches.

Stage dancing was part of theatrical performances. Each genre had its own dances. During the dances, the performers beat time with their feet. To do this, they wore special wooden or iron sandals, and sometimes beat the beat with their hands using peculiar castanets - oyster shells - placed on their middle fingers.

Each genre of Greek theater had its own dances. In tragedies, the choir performed emmelei - a dance consisting of pathetic, majestic, noble movements. This dance conveyed the feelings of gods and heroes. In comedies, the most common dance was the kordak, the dance of satyrs (satirs are fantastic creatures with goat legs and horns). It was a fast dance, temperamental, replete with dizzying, almost circus-like jumps, somersaults and relaxed poses. The movements were performed at a rapid pace and consisted of squats, rotations, jumps, during which you had to hit your buttocks with your heels. It was performed only by professional, specially trained dancers.

The attitude towards dance in Ancient Greece is evidenced by the fact that the muse of dance and choral singing Terpsichore was included in the pantheon of deities. The Greeks understood dance very broadly, considering it both as gymnastics, a means of healing the body, and as a mimic art. The dances included the procession of the playwright Sophocles at the head of a procession of naked youths through Athens after the victory at Salamis, juggling and acrobatics, military drill, funeral and wedding processions and measured, strictly simultaneous gestures and movements of the choir in tragedy.

The need for dance is determined by the very nature of man, his internal rhythms, but the Greeks also strived for ideal beauty, which was achieved through stylization. An example is the war dance (pyrrhic), described by Homer and known from surviving reliefs and vase paintings. Another example, also from Homer, is a funeral dance, the purpose of which is to breathe new life into a dead body through a burst of physical activity of the dancers. This dance comes from the island of Crete and is characterized by sharp movements of the arms and rhythmic strikes of swords on shields to scare away evil spirits.

Since the Greeks believed that dance was gifted to people by the gods, they showed great interest in esoteric cults in which dance played a significant role. In addition to orgiastic dances associated with certain rituals, the ancient Greeks loved solemn processions, especially paeans, which were a kind of rhythmically organized procession in honor of a particular deity with the singing of solemn hymns. The big festival was Thesmophoria - in honor of the goddess of agriculture Demeter and her daughter Persephone. Dancing played an important role in the Orphic and Eleusinian mysteries.

Orgiastic dances in honor of the god of fertility Dionysus gradually developed into a specific ceremony - Dionysia. Dancers who portrayed maenads and dancers who portrayed satyrs were specially trained for them; according to myth, this was the retinue of Dionysus. The common dance - the dithyramb, performed in Dionysian festivals, became the source of ancient Greek tragedy.

Dance, which developed within the framework of ancient Greek tragedy, has several periods corresponding to different stages of development of dramaturgy itself. For Aeschylus, dance is a means of increasing the tension of dramatic action. Sophocles interprets dance as an expression of emotional response to unfolding events. In Euripides, the chorus uses pantomime to depict feelings that correspond to the plot. The dance as part of the tragedy (emmelia) was quite slow and majestic, and the gestures in it (chironomia) were wide, large, easily perceived by the public in large arenas where tragedies were staged. The dance in the old comedy was called kordak and was, in accordance with the spirit of the performance, unbridled and indecent. The dancer twisted his stomach, hit his heels and buttocks, jumped, hit his chest and thighs, stomped his feet and even hit his partner. Sikinnis, a dance of satyrs, rich in acrobatic elements, surpassed the kordak in outright shamelessness. With the spread of Christianity, both dances disappeared.

The favorite entertainment of the ancient Greeks was meals in a friendly circle - symposiums. Professional dancers took part in them. Greek vase paintings depict courtesans (heterae) dancing to the sound of a flute, while spectators watch and even join in the dance.

When riots began in Rome, and the emperor was afraid that an uprising might occur, he ordered three thousand dancers and dancers to take to the streets of the city, who pacified the riot of the crowd with their dances. The dancing art of the ancient Greeks had a great influence on the Romans. Only the creative tastes of the Romans were fundamentally different from the tastes of the Greeks. For the Greeks, art and dance were something sacred that ennobled the soul and brought a person closer to the gods. The Romans, more rude and squat, saw art only as entertainment. The dances gradually lost their original severity and purity; they began to increasingly depict and express passion, which did not at all correspond to the high religious purpose of dance in Ancient Greece. However, the ancient Romans knew and honored the name of their first dancer. Of course: after all, he was considered to be Romulus, one of the legendary founders of Rome.

The Romans made a great contribution to the history of world dance as the creators of pantomime. This is a highly stylized sequence of movements, usually by one performer, with the main role played by gesticulation. The pantomime was usually accompanied by a small orchestra. Famous pantomimists were Bafillus from Alexandria, who preferred comedy, and Pylades from Sicily, who gave pantomime tragic pathos. Pantomime as a performance was first performed publicly in the 23rd century. BC. Over time, this art degenerated into an openly erotic and vulgar spectacle, which the Christian church fought against.

Although pantomime prevailed in Ancient Rome, ritual dance was not forgotten there either. There were many dances - processions for different occasions. For example, members of the priestly college of the Salii, priests of the god Mars, performed their cult military dance - tripudii, i.e. dance in three beats. Throughout the Italian peninsula, priests performed rituals associated with ancient fertility cults. Temple rituals of this kind gradually developed into folk holidays. For example, the famous Saturnalia, held at the end of December, became a folk carnival, with dancing in the streets and mutual gift-giving. Subsequently, the spirit of Christian Christmas holidays absorbed many elements of the ancient Roman saturnalia.

So, in the first paragraph of our work we looked at the dances of antiquity. For the Greeks, dance was the unity of soul and body, dance was given to them by the gods. Dancing was a compulsory subject in gymnasiums, and a free citizen who did not know how to dance was subject to ridicule and condemnation. The poses and movements in the dance should be beautiful and harmonious, in addition, the dance should clearly express the mood, thoughts and feelings. The Romans considered dance only entertainment; they began to increasingly depict and express passion. But the Greeks, in turn, introduced pantomime into the ancient dance, which helped stylize the sequence of movements. Over time, the art of pantomime degenerated into an openly erotic and vulgar spectacle, which the Christian church fought against.

1. Style and harmony

Sources based on archaic material divided Greek music into three main "harmonies" ("styles"): Dorian, Ionian and Aeolian.

So Athenaeus (XIV 624 p-626 a) writes: “There are three harmonies, like the three Greek tribes () - Dorian, Aeolian and Ionian. There is a considerable difference in the characters of these tribes. The Spartans, more than other Dorians, follow the path of their ancestors... By Dorian harmony they [that is, the archaic Greeks] called the movement of the melody that the Dorians used, and the one that the Aeolians sang was called Aeolian harmony, and for the third harmony they had the name is Ionian, which... was sung by the Ionians. Dorian harmony is distinguished by masculinity and dignity. It is not boring, not joyful, but stern and tense, and [moreover, it is] not complex or variegated in style. The character of the Aeolians combines arrogance and importance, even boastfulness... However, their character is not prone to malice, but is proud and impudent. This is why their love of drink, their erotic inclinations and their general effeminacy of lifestyle fit so well together. For the same reason they have the character of what... what the ancients used to call Aeolian harmony... "Aeolian harmony is that song that suits anyone who is furious."... Then let us examine the character of the inhabitants of Miletus, somewhat manifested in the Ionians. Having graceful, strong bodies, they carry themselves boastfully and are full of life: they are difficult to calm, they are pugnacious and there is nothing of kindness or good fun in them. They also exhibit hostility and harshness. Consequently, the Ionian type of harmony is neither invigorating nor joyful, but stern, brutal and nobly important. ...So these three harmonies exist, as we said at the beginning, just as [there are] three tribes.”

Subsequently, the terminology changed somewhat. The division into three “harmonies” (“styles”) was preserved, but the place of the Ionian and Aeolian harmonies was taken by the Phrygian and Lydian. The music of the Phrygians () was associated by the Greeks with frenzy and frenzy. The riotous and orgiastic music of the Dionysian cult, which came to the Greeks from Asia Minor, was the most striking embodiment of “Phrygian harmony.” In the common Greek understanding, playing and singing in Phrygian meant creating and performing fast-paced, whirlwind music with the highest emotional intensity. The widespread love and erotic elegies of the Lydians () created the characteristic features of “Lydian harmony.”

The uniqueness of this terminology lay in the fact that the established designations implied not so much the theme as the altitudinal region of the sound space. Ptolemy (Harmonics II; 6) twice repeats the same statement that “the ancients... sang only in Dorian, Phrygian and Lydian [keys], differing from each other by one tone.” And further (ibid.) he writes: “In general, the three most ancient [tonals], called Dorian, Phrygian and Lydian... are distinguished from each other by tone.” Works of “Lydian harmony” were performed mainly in the high register, “Phrygian” – in the middle register, “Dorian” – in the low register. The lower register was perceived as the personification of a calm, majestic state, and the high register, on the contrary, as the embodiment of tension and dynamics. Genres such as trains, linodys, laments, and funeral songs sounded in a high register, as they were supposed to be perceived intensely and dynamically. Hymns and chants at religious ceremonies, on the contrary, were performed in a low register.

2. Varieties of musical instruments

The tools the Greeks used were very different from modern ones. There were two main types: strings, such as the cithara, and wind instruments, such as the flute. Both in terms of timbre and sound strength, they were unusually simple and colorless.

The basis of the lyre and its resonator was a turtle shell (soundboard). Two horns of a goat or antelope were inserted into the two front natural openings of the shell, forming the arms of the lyre (ancones). At the top they were connected by a transverse crossbar - a string player (xigon). Strings from guts or veins were attached to the latter directly or with the help of pegs (collopes). At the bottom, the strings were tied to a smooth and flat filly (ipolyrion), without touching the flat part of the shell ().

When playing the lyre, the performer (lyricist) usually sat and held the instrument on his knees, somewhat obliquely away from himself. The lyre was tuned using a special key (chordoton). When playing, they used not only fingers, but also a plectrum made of wood, ivory or metal. They played simultaneously with the fingers and the plectrum, then alternately (the plectrum was a flat, small stick pointed at both ends; sometimes it was a spoon with a hole into which the finger of the right hand was conveniently inserted).

The barbiton is mentioned as a separate type of lyre. It was larger than a lyre and had a lower sound. Other varieties of lyres are pectida, epigonion and magada. The latter had 20 strings, the epigonion - 40.

4. Kifara

The kithara differed from the lyre in that not only the soundboard, but also its bows were hollow. They consisted of thin wooden or metal plates and varied in size and elegance of decoration. Usually the kithara had seven strings. It was a favorite instrument, indispensable during musical competitions, sacrifices and ceremonial processions. If the lyre was easy to handle and it was not difficult to learn to play it, then the kithara required professional training. It was much larger than the lyre, much longer and heavier (). During the playing, the cithara was thrown on a belt over the shoulder, the strings were clamped with the left hand, and the strings were plucked with the right. The citharist stood while performing.

The kithara was one of the poorest and least expressive instruments imaginable, but it was distinguished by its austere purity of sound and manly clarity. And this is precisely what the Greeks valued in her! After all, they did not demand from their instruments either a brilliant and passionate reproduction of the pleasures, struggles, sufferings that fill life, or a changeable reflection of those dreams into which our joys and sorrows sometimes plunge us. They wanted clear and simple impressions, which were like an echo of that Olympus, where eternal bliss reigned.

The larger cithara, which had a string that connected the arms, pegs and resonance box, was called a forminga.

5. Other stringed instruments

The Greek variety of harp was called trigon (). The trigon had a triangular shape, which was formed either by a soundboard with a string player and a third string, or simply by both arms without a string player. Also mentioned is the megadis, a multi-stringed instrument played with both hands without a plethra.

6. Flute

Wind instruments, unlike strings, produced passionate and inspiring sounds. The simplest wind instrument was the flute. It was made from special reed; such reeds appeared when, after heavy rains, there was high water in the lake for at least two years. The reed grown in high water was thicker and fleshier than usual. All flutes were wider at the bottom, narrower at the top and had several side holes (from 1 to 7). The mouthpiece could be metal and have a different shape: it was sometimes narrower, sometimes wider; sometimes straight, sometimes curved.

The flute had great variety and flexibility of sound. It was used as a necessary accessory to brilliant celebrations; usually it served as an accompaniment to love and passionate songs. However, the capabilities of this tool were also very limited.

7. Pipe

Flute - consisted of 7 or 9 hollow reed tubes (syring) of different lengths, connected to each other with wax (). Its sound was light, pleasant, a little whistling (sometimes they talk about the “squealing” sounds of a shepherd’s pipe). The range of the pipe was limited to the high register.

8. Avlos

Along with the cithara, the most common instrument in the ancient world was the aulos. It consisted of a mouthpiece with one or two reeds and a tube (bombix) equipped with four (or more) holes and side valves in the form of movable pegs. The length of the bombix varied depending on the required register and type of instrument: high-sounding aulos with a small range were short, and low-sounding aulos with a wider range were much longer. Bombyx was made from reed, wood, ivory, and also the cleaned knee bones of a donkey or deer. The bombix had a certain number of holes (up to 15 in the most complex ones), so that the aulos range could cover up to two octaves. The mouthpiece with a tongue was made of reeds and was the most important part of the instrument. In its structure, the aulos was close to the modern clarinet.
The performers on the aulos were called aulets.

Along with single aulos, double aulos were widespread: with tubes of the same or different lengths and a common mouthpiece. In this case, one tube was called male and produced low tones, the other was called female and produced high tones ().

9. Signaling Tools

Among the Spartans, along with the lyre and lyre, one of the most common instruments was the salpinx - a long straight pipe with a bowl-shaped pipe and a widened lower end. It made hoarse, staccato sounds and was used to signal troops on the battlefield, as well as to perform military marches. A horn (keras) was used to give signals in the camp. The trumpeter was called a kerataules.

10. Noise and percussion instruments

Kimbalon is a percussion instrument; consisted of two small hollow metal hemispheres of the same size. Each hemisphere had a flat ring that could be used to hold the instrument as the musician struck them together. The cymbalon was especially widely used during the Dionysian period.

Tympanum is a tambourine covered in leather with metal circles on the frame. They hit it with their hand or shook it. The tympanum set the rhythm for marches and dances on the holidays of Dionysus and Demeter.

The crotalon (rattle) was used during orgies in honor of Dionysus, and also as an accompaniment when performing merry dances.

Krupesion - consisted of two metal or wooden planks connected at an acute angle with a bell between them. Worn on the leg and used by choir directors who set the rhythm for the singers.

11. The nature of ancient Greek music

Moving from musical instruments to music itself, it is necessary to note the difference between the art of the ancient Greeks and modern peoples. In music, the Greeks loved clarity, calmness and purity of tone rather than the richness of consonances. They had an instinctive fear of a melody that was too rich and too sensitive. This is especially true for the Spartans. The words of their songs were always simple and courageous. They only praised those who lived nobly and had the good fortune to die for Sparta, or condemned people who showed cowardice.

12. Founders of musical art

Music played an important role in the social life of the Spartans. In the 7th – 6th centuries. BC Sparta was a kind of legislator of the canons of classical musical art. In 676/673 BC. here the All-Dorian festival of Apollo of Carnea was established. The main figure of this event was Terpander, a poet and lyre player from Aeolian Lesbos. He was credited with creating the “kypharodic nome” (“nome”, in Greek, “law”, “charter”).

The “second establishment” occurred in 665 BC, when the Spartan festival of gymnopedia was established. The main figure of this event was Thaletas, a poet and lyre player from Dorian Crete. He was credited with the creation of the first paeans and hyperchemes, that is, the transformation of the nome from a solo work into a choral one.

A contemporary of Terpandra and Thaletas was the third famous musician of the 7th century. BC – A clone who was credited with creating the “aulodic nome” (a verbal composition sung to the accompaniment of a flute).

13. Terpander

Terpander was born in the city of Antissa on the west coast of Lesbos. According to legend, he became the heir to the lyre of the mythical Orpheus (the waves washed it to the island) and with it he received a rare ability to create musical works. Terpander introduced notes, through which he depicted not only his own melodies, but also the works of previous composers, ancient folk songs and accepted liturgical melodies. Four times in a row he won the Pythian Games.

The Delphic oracle called on Terpandra to save Sparta from a public disaster - civil strife. It is not known why these discords arose, but they were terrible. It seemed that the city had gone mad. People attacked each other with swords in the streets and during feasts. When Terpander appeared in Sparta, he had an unprecedented lyre in his hands - not a four-stringed one, as it was known before, but a seven-stringed one, as it has become since then. He struck the strings - and, listening to his measured playing, people began to breathe more evenly, look at each other kinder, threw down their weapons, held hands and, stepping in harmony, led a round dance in honor of the god Apollo. Terpander played before the council and the people's assembly - and those who disagreed came to an agreement, those who were irreconcilable made peace, those who did not understand found a common language. He played at feasts and houses - and friendship reigned at feasts, and love reigned in houses. (Thus, Terpander was credited with the “invention” of not only liturgical nomes, but also table scolia).

Terpandra's merit lay in the fact that he composed wonderful music, the emotional structure of which was fully consistent with the spirit of the laws being established and the features of their text. It had to be bright and imaginative music, helping to penetrate the essence of the law and acceptable to all ages and a wide variety of tastes.

Terpandra's nomes were most likely two-part: the first part (archa, i.e. “beginning”) was an invocation to some deity. In front of a large crowd of people, a singer with a cithara stood facing the temple or statue of a deity and sang an invocation or prayer. For example:

"Zeus, the first principle of all things, the leader of all
Zeus, I address this beginning of glorification to you..."

After completing the archa, the singer turned to face the people and began to sing himself. This part was called omphalos (“center”, “concentration”). Here, in sung hexameters, the basic Spartan laws were fulfilled. Terpander himself translated the retras of Lycurgus into verse so that young people could learn them by heart.
However, the theme of the omphalos was devoted not so much to the chanting of legal provisions, but to the praise of moral and physical virtues that are a consequence of observing the laws.

14. Evolution of nome

After Terpandra the nome became tripartite. The completion of the nome was the sphragis (“seal”), in which the author’s originality was most fully manifested. Later, some kifareds began to introduce a special instrumental episode between the first two parts of the nome. Now the performer’s turn from the temple to the people was not a formal and fleeting movement. It was done very slowly and was accompanied by special music, and this part itself was called catathropa (“turn”).
Subsequently, between the archa and the catatrope, another part appeared - the metarcha ("next to the archa"), and between the catatropa and the omphalos - the metacatatropa ("next to the catatropa"). Sfragis began to conclude the epilogue. Thus, the nome became seven-part. At first, the nome was associated only with the topic of Spartan legislation. Subsequently, the legal part of the nome becomes smaller and smaller.

15. Thalet

A younger contemporary, Terpandra Thaletos, was born in Gorgin on Crete. He couched his legislative ideas not in paragraphs of doctrine, not in codes of laws, but in lyrical songs. The Lacedaemonians persuaded Thaletas to move to their policy. According to legend, he saved Sparta from a natural disaster - with his play he averted the plague from the city. But Thalet did even more to maintain civil peace. The songs he composed called for obedience and unanimity through melodies and rhythms. Together with two other musicians, Thaletos established gymnopedias in Laconia - annual ten-day festivals held in memory of the fallen Spartans and dedicated to Apollo. The execution of the exercises was accompanied by chants at the gymnopedia, which were of a serious and solemn nature.

16. Further development of ancient Greek lyrics

The second generation of lyricists is determined by the name of Alcman (lived ca. 630 BC). He was a Greek from Lydian Sardis, who also lived in Sparta for a long time. He was considered the founder and best master of the genre of parthenias - “girls' songs”, performed by competing choirs in processions at women's holidays.

The next great musician, Sakad from Argos, won the Pythian competitions among the auletes three times (in 586, 584 and 582 BC). Tradition attributes to him the creation of the “Three Song Elegies”, each of which sounded in one of the main tonalities - Dorian, Phrygian and Lydian. Sakada’s greatest creation was considered the “Pythian Nome,” dedicated to the struggle between Apollo and Python. In the first part (“Test”), Apollo tested whether the place he had chosen for the fight was suitable or not. In "Battle Cry" the god challenged the monster to a duel. In the Iambic (where the duel itself took place), the aulos imitated the trumpet calls and gnashing of the dragon's teeth. “Sponday” sounded like a hymn or an oath to Apollo. In “Kotahorevis” the solemn song and dance of Apollo thundered as he celebrated his victory.

Simonides of Keos (556 - 468 BC) became the creator of two new genres of choral lyrics: epinikia - songs in honor of victory in competitions and phren - lamentation about the death of an eminent citizen.

17. Dance art

The Greeks have always been delighted with rhythmic, harmonious and expressive movements. Therefore, dancing occupied an important place among other arts, and had many varieties. Some dances were performed by individual dancers, others by entire choirs; some were sad, others were cheerful; some are peaceful, others are warlike. A special genre includes hyporhems - songs accompanied by dances.

The dance was based on strict adherence to rhythm, on a combination of rhythmic steps with appropriate gestures and hand movements. Through dance they represented various historical events or acted out scenes from life. Each dance was dedicated to one of the immortal inhabitants of Olympus and reflected what should be characteristic of this or that deity, the world to which God extended his protection.

The Greeks had two main requirements for all dances: firstly, they had to be distinguished by the beauty of their plasticity, and secondly, they had to clearly express various feelings and well-known thoughts. The dance very often had a purely imitative character. For example, the dancers depicted a semblance of a battle and performed in time all the movements that take place in a battle: they pretended to throw arrows or dodge them, threw a spear and reflected blows; they ran forward, retreated, bent over, fell to the ground as if wounded or killed, quickly rose up and changed front. In choral lyrical dances, the beauty of each individual dancer was complemented by the beauty of the movements of the choir, which unfolded now in straight, now in wavy lines, now in parallel and counter, and these movements were arranged and diversified in thousands of ways; sometimes the choir consisted of half boys and half girls; their groups intertwined, harmoniously and in time, performing simple and complex figures.

18. Some ancient Greek dances

The most famous war dance of the Greeks was the pyrrhea, performed by dancers in full armor. With weapons and armor, the dancers presented various scenes of battles. According to Plato, the dance reproduced “the movements of beautiful bodies and courageous souls in war or in difficult circumstances... By dodging and retreating, high jumping and bending, he reproduced techniques that help avoid blows and arrows. It also reproduced pyrrhic movements of the opposite kind, used in offensive actions, that is, when archery, when throwing a dart and when delivering various blows.”

A kind of dance performed at feasts was the cordax. Staggering and swaying, the dancer imitated the movements of a drunk.

The Crane was considered a beautiful dance. Boys and girls, holding hands, performed various figures, imitating this bird. Under the direction of the choir director, they made circles and turns, and also walked in a line, accompanying their movements with many evolutions.

Civilization and culture of Ancient Greece

Initially, the dance was a complex consisting of facial expressions, gestures, movements of the body and legs.

Primitive dance, of course, arose from emotions and was directly related to acute experiences. Initially, the dances also contained a certain element of play: in nature, in the other “I”, in the “new” and the well-forgotten “old”. Primitive man was endowed with a few movements, but every day brought new difficulties, as a result of which algorithms of behavior and the typification of new gestures were developed. One of the ways to replenish the ancient dance arsenal was to imitate the movements of animals. The basis of primitive dances was magic and ritual. The movements performed during the ritual action were always somehow directed and had a strictly defined purpose. Dance here acted as a means of bringing oneself into a specific state, different from everyday life. Dance was thus a kind of channel into the unknown and acted as an opportunity to control the irrational aspects of human life.

Every dance among the ancients marked the connection of a person with powerful cosmic energies necessary to experience important, milestone events in his life: birth - entry into adulthood - marriage - birth of offspring - hunting - war - death. That is, they danced not out of excess strength, but to acquire it.

Totemic dances, which lasted for several days, were usually the scenario of myths about fantastic journeys from the life of the first ancestors. In the totemic dances of different tribes, their main feature is clearly manifested - complete assimilation to the totem. The vocabulary of totemic dance is determined by the nature of the plasticity of a certain type of animal, bird, or insect. These dances were always dynamic in their structure, emphasizing movements rather than poses. In totemic dances, a person literally transformed, becoming more like the animal being depicted than himself (that is, outwardly the dancer acquired animal features). These ancient dances also included scenes from scenes of hunting, playing with birds and animals. The most ancient people knew how to skillfully copy the habits of animals, as if transforming into them in a dance. Such transformation, in their opinion, helped to gain the courage and endurance characteristic of this or that animal. Each tribe had its own sacred animal, which they worshiped, in whose honor they danced until they dropped. For this, it rewarded them in battle with all its valuable qualities, bringing good luck and victory. Each had from ten to thirty types of male hunting dances, each with a special name, special songs, musical instruments, steps, figures and costumes of the participants. Each movement had its own sacred meaning.

In hunting dances, men trained their powers of observation, learned to track animals and camouflage themselves, that is, psychological and physical preparation took place in the dance, which contributed to success in the hunt.

As for women's rituals, they were among the most widespread in the art of the Upper Paleolithic. Rituals of fire and procreation, plant forces of nature, animal reproduction and hunting success were associated with the image of a woman in her forms. Among some tribes of southwest Africa, a large procession with torches of fire, organized during an unsuccessful hunt, was led only by the Great Woman. In addition to women's dance rituals associated with the cult of fertility, dances were widespread in which women were embodied in the image of one or another plant useful to the tribe.

Women performed war dances either with weapons in their hands, from time to time throwing them forward (which symbolized the pursuit of a fleeing enemy) and backward (which was intended to distance their own husbands from danger). Often these dances were performed with ritual white brooms made from the tail of a buffalo or horse - women waved these objects widely throughout the dance (so that their husbands would “sweep away” their enemies from the face of the earth). War dances have always been the most significant ritual actions of the tribe. They were performed without interruption, day and night, until the men returned from the campaign.

The oldest and most widespread symbolic sign in dance was the circle. Forming in a circle was considered a talisman against evil forces and guaranteed a successful outcome of the ritual. In hunting dances the circle meant a round-up, in agricultural dances it symbolized fertility. They treated and married in the circle. However, the circle is not the only known form of mass dancing. Lines were also a widespread form of dance performance, especially military dances. The dances of the ancients also reproduced such complex figures as a labyrinth and a drawing of a crawling snake.

For primitive man, reality and fiction were equivalent. And it is no coincidence that ritual actions could last several weeks - which means it was vitally necessary!
But gradually the ritual beginning, where the dance had a deep meaning, begins to be replaced by a purely bodily, entertaining one. Thus there was a smooth transition from primitive dance to ancient dance.

In Greece, everyone danced: from peasants to Socrates. Dancing was not only one of the educational disciplines, but adults also willingly continued to study it. All dances of antiquity were performed for spectators, and not for pleasure and personal amusement. It is estimated that the total number of ancient Greek dances is more than two hundred. Conventionally, they can be classified into five groups:
- war dances - ritual and educational;
- moderate cults - emmelia, dance of the veils and dances of the caryatids, as well as dances at birth, weddings and funerals;
- orgiastic dances;
- public and theatrical dances;
- dancing in everyday life.

Let us characterize the most significant dance groups:

A) War dances
"Pyrrhus" is one of the most striking war dances. It was also known as “pyrrhichium”, “pyrrhiha”. It originated in Sparta. We started learning this dance at the age of five. Essentially, pyrrhiha is a virtuoso dance with swords and shields. Pyrrhich was one of the favorite feast entertainments, especially when it was performed by dancers.

B) Cult dances
Emmelia is a very measured dance in slow rhythms, such as round dances and farandoles.

The dance of the veils and the dance of the caryatids are more lively. The Caryatids are the same dancers who first used the technique of dancing on pointe shoes in their dances. Indeed, pointe shoes were used in antiquity, but they were not similar to modern ones. Antique pointe shoes are a stand on the ends of the toes, but barefoot, without any special shoes. The men danced this way too.

B) Theatrical dances
Each of the three types of theatrical performances of the classical era had its own dance: tragedy is characterized by emellia; for comedy - kordak; for satirical drama - sikkanida.

Dances as spectacular entertainment were led by mimes (buffoons, clowns, acrobats, jugglers). Not a single feast of rich and respectable citizens was complete without them. Let us list the characteristic features of a virtuoso mime dance:
- the technique is based on turning the legs;
- practiced dancing on pointe shoes and various jumps;
- favorite manner - a sharp turn of the body into a plane perpendicular to the legs;
- acrobatic cubism (dancing on hands in a variety of poses) and virtuoso pyrrhic are typical for dancers;
- dancing with cups and baskets is popular;
- a characteristic technique in Greek dances is bending the hand upward at a right angle.

The Greeks also had a whole system, a complex technique of playing with hands in dances - chironomy. Hands have always spoken a conventional language, the key to which, unfortunately, is lost today.
Ritual dances in Ancient Greece are very diverse, but they are conventionally divided into two main dance cults: “light” in honor of the god Apollo and “dark” in honor of the god Dionysus. We can observe the remnants of ancient Greek ritual dances in honor of Apollo and other light gods in an ordinary children's New Year's round dance. The only difference is that the object of worship is not a statue, but a spruce tree. The root connection of these rituals goes back to ancient times, when it was customary to carry out ritual cleansing before the onset of the New Year. However, in the ancient world there were other dance rituals that concentrated exactly everything that was expelled from the solemn Apollonian cult: a riot of gestures, the superiority of the body over the spirit. Everything dark and obscene spilled out in a festival dedicated to Dionysus, the god of fertility.

The development of dance in Ancient Rome, its difference from ancient Greek dance.

While Greece celebrated each celebration with a wide variety of dances, the ancient Romans used only warlike and wild dances. If the ancient Greeks combined both the rational and the orgiastic principles in various types of their dances, then the ancient Romans, by all indications, were distinguished by a more rational mindset. This can confirm the fact that there is almost no detailed evidence left about ancient Roman dances.

An analysis of the culture of Ancient Rome shows us a clear division into the culture of the “elite” and the culture of the common masses of people. This was undoubtedly reflected in the development of dance culture. If we do not have any information about the dances of the elite, then there are many references to the dances of slaves. Only later, during the reign of Numa Pompilius, the nymph Egeria gave the Romans new rules for new dances. These were Salian dances, for which twelve priests were chosen from among representatives of noble families - they had to dance in temples, glorifying the gods and heroes.
In addition, pyrrhic blossomed in Rome. True, the word “pyrrhiha” received a new meaning here - this is how ensemble dance in general began to be called, as opposed to solo dance.

In Etruria, which was more civilized, all the arts flourished long before the founding of Rome - there were excellent mimic actors and a wide variety of dances existed. From this country came dancers to Rome who accompanied their bizarre dances on flutes - they were called histriones (from the word “histor”, which meant “mythical actor”). During their performances, they declared entire poems, and all Roman youth began to imitate them. The Romans fell in love with pantomime most of all: they were still disgusted by the orgiastic beginning of the Dionysian festivities, and from the Apollonian rhythms they left only the culture of a beautiful gesture (ancient Roman facial expressions are used almost unchanged to this day). The Romans' passion for pantomime and admiration for certain performers reached the point that during the reign of Augustus all of Rome was, as it were, divided into two hostile camps: some were adherents of the famous dancer and mime Pylades, others recognized only Baphilus.

Subsequently, with the growth of the Roman Empire, the influence of Greece and the East led to the development of dance culture in ancient Roman society and even to the emergence of dance schools. Most likely, their first founders were mimes.

The meaning and variety of dance in Ancient Egypt.

The monuments of art and literature that have reached us prove that dance in Ancient Egypt was of no small importance. Almost not a single festival, not a single solemn religious ceremony was complete without dancing. Dance dominated in Egypt as an expression of joy and was synonymous with the word “rejoicing.” Among the names of dances of ancient Egypt, the most common ones are ib, mww, tereb, nebeb, the image of which is well preserved on reliefs. The determinant of all dances is the figure of a person with a raised arm and leg. The mww dance apparently also served as a funeral dance.

Most of the sacred ancient Egyptian cults were surrounded by dance rituals. The performances associated with the myth of Osiris and Isis, which lasted for several days in a row, were graceful and solemn. Similar cult actions also include the dance that accompanies the service of women before the sacred Egyptian bull Apis. The patron gods of fun, music and dancing among the Egyptians, in addition to Hathor, were also Nehemaut and the bearded dwarf-shaped Hatiy (he was depicted dancing and playing musical instruments in front of the goddess Hathor). Apparently, already in the era of the Old Kingdom, the religious dance of dwarfs played a prominent role in Egyptian rituals and was very highly valued. There were also so-called astronomical dances of priests in Egypt, which depicted the movement of various celestial bodies harmoniously distributed in the Universe. Let's try to briefly describe this unique, in our opinion, dance. It took place in the temple: around the altar, placed in the middle and representing the sun, priests dressed in bright dresses, representing the signs of the zodiac, smoothly moved and circled. According to Plutarch's explanation, they first moved from east to west (reminiscent of the movement of the sky), then from west to east (imitating the movement of the planets), then stopped as a sign of the immobility of the earth. This dance is a clear example of how various dance rituals formed in people not only an idea of ​​the planetary system and the harmony of perpetual motion (as in this case), but also generally determined the spiritual development of each people.

In view of the important role that dance played in Egyptian rituals, we can conclude that in Egypt there were special institutions where dancers were trained. In confirmation of this, we came across several indications that the temple of Amun had its own choreographic school that trained priestesses - dancers.

Along with dances consisting of harmonious rhythmic movements, dances were very common in Ancient Egypt, which were direct exercises in agility, flexibility, and sometimes completely turned into purely gymnastic exercises. As for the costume, we only found information that the dancers wore a short apron, sometimes with a belt around the waist, which was tied with a loop. Women danced either naked or in long and transparent dresses. But in ritual dances, the dancers had to be dressed (this is how they expressed respect to a sacred animal or deity). The dancers' arms and legs were always decorated with bracelets, their chests with a necklace, and their heads with a ribbon or lotus flower. We also have information that they danced in Ancient Egypt to the accompaniment of musical instruments (harp, lyre, lute and double flute), singing and clapping.

The New Kingdom was dominated by a dance that is still very common in the east - the Almey dance, which was danced in long transparent dresses with fringes to the sounds of a tambourine or castanets.

Having thus examined the development and determined the significance of dance in the main states of antiquity, we were clearly convinced that dance was a necessity for the spiritual development of every people.

National dances of Spain and India as a reflection of the national character of these countries.

National dances are inextricably linked with the peculiarities of the national character of any people. No wonder Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy wrote: “the soul of the people is in dance.” From here we can draw a conclusion: in order to unravel the soul of a nation, it is enough just to become familiar with its national dance in detail. Let's try, using the example of two countries: Spain and India, to examine the national souls of the peoples of these countries through national dances.

Maximilian Voloshin wrote at the beginning of the twentieth century: “Spain always dances, dances everywhere. She dances ritual dances at funerals at the coffin of the deceased; she dances in the Seville Cathedral in front of the altar; dances on the barricades and before the death penalty; dances day and night..."

We cannot talk about Spanish dances in general, since the folklore of each province is extremely original and unique. So, for example, the northern Spanish Basques are courageously - stern and archaic, the Castilians are restrained - tense, the Aragonese, on the contrary, are infectiously cheerful and straightforward, but the dances of the south of Spain - Andalusia and Murcia - are especially passionate. But there were also dances that were common to the whole country. Among these dances was primarily the fandango dance. It is the national motif of Spain. Fandango music had enormous power over the soul and heart of every true Spaniard, as if it ignited their hearts with a spark. The dance started slowly, but gradually accelerated. Some dancers armed themselves with castanets, others simply snapped their fingers, women beat time with their heels to the sound of guitars and violins. Fandango is danced in three steps, quickly, like a whirlwind, very characteristic and temperamental. The classic fandango was a pair dance, based on the play of partners, in which any touching is prohibited, on an argument, a competition consisting of the dancers moving closer and further away from each other, here the expressiveness of the eyes and gestures plays a big role.

Let's take a brief look at another national dance - the bolero. This dance appeared only at the end of the 16th century and was invented by Sebastian Seretso (the famous choreographer during the reign of Charles III). Bolero is a kind of Spanish ballet, slowly but relentlessly asserting its position in the canons of classical dance. They said that “the fandango ignites, and the bolero intoxicates.” Of course, speaking about Spanish characteristic national dances, we cannot fail to mention the famous flamenco. It is rather not a dance, but a whole group of dances. Flamenco originated from the southern province of Spain, Andalusia. It is still not possible to accurately determine the meaning of the word “flamenco”. Although there are many versions, the most appropriate, in our opinion, is that “flamenco” comes from the Latin word “flamma” (fire), since the dance is truly “fiery” in nature; was originally ritual and dates back to the time of the cult of fire. There is also an interesting version that this word comes from the name of the flamingo bird, since the costumes of the dancers emphasize the slender figure, as well as the whimsical movements of this exotic bird. The dance itself is very original; in it we will not find any trace of pantomime or specific theatrical gestures. The "bailaor" (flamenco dancer) could dance alone, which emphasized his independence from the world. The bailaor expressed all the feelings characteristic of a collective dance independently. In general, a single dance implied a silent collective action. Baylaor competes with himself in this dance - hence the amazing expressiveness and passion of the dance, deep feelings and spiritual work. Particular importance in the performance of all flamenco dances is given to hand movements, which represent the language of the dance. No wonder Ovid also said: “if you have a voice, sing, if you have soft hands, dance.” The hands of women in flamenco are flexible, expressive, sensitive; fingers are in constant motion. In men, on the contrary, hand movements are strict, sublime, with clear plasticity; they cut through the air like a sword strike.

Based on the description of the main dances of Spain, we can identify three main components of Spanish dance: a proud stance of the body, reminiscent of a matador, flexible and expressive bends of the dancers’ arms and zapateado (the rhythmic clicking of the dancers’ heels). All this perfectly characterizes the national soul of the Spanish people, who are unusually passionate, expressive, emotional, ardent and temperamental.

Features of the development of Indian dance culture (love orientation).

According to one legend, dance in India originated thanks to the god Shiva the Destroyer. Shiva himself was an excellent dancer and taught his wife Parvati the art of dance, which he loved most. He danced tandava, a more energetic form, and Parvati danced lasya, a more refined, graceful form. Traditions also say that Brahma, the Creator, was very concerned about the strife and disorder that reigned on Earth. Since the four Vedas were kept strictly secret by the brahmanas, he decided to create a fifth Veda, accessible to everyone. The art of theatrical acting, to which the Natyaveda was dedicated, was first taught by Brahma to the sage Bharata. Bharata showed his triune arts - drama, music and dance - to Shiva. Remembering his own energetic dance, Shiva ordered the chief assistant from his retinue to teach Bharata the art of tandava. Bharata combined this art with the knowledge he already had and wrote Natyashastra, a comprehensive work on the art of theater. Bharata and other sages spread this art among the peoples of the Earth.

Thus, these traditions clearly define the connection of the arts of dance, music and drama with divinity and immortality. We can still see how strongly classical dance in India is related to religion and mythology. This is most clearly reflected not only in the choice of themes embodied, but also in the manner of performing the dance. Which in turn directly affects the formation of spiritual life in India.

The central motive of the Vishnitz cult for centuries was the desire of man for unity with the deity. The gods responded not only with reciprocity, but also with an “individual approach.” The rias lila dance, performed in Braj, a locality in the Mathura region of Uttar Pradesh where Krishna is said to have been born and lived, depicts Krishna's ability to create in each of the gopis (cowherd girls) dancing on it the illusion that she alone is dancing. with him. This is how the allegory of the mortal soul approaching the deity with trust and love, traditional for the spiritual life of India, was expressed. Rias-lila is a beautiful dance, it is still performed today accompanied by appropriate chants.

These are the many-faced Indian deities with numerous stories associated with them and form the thematic basis of Indian dance. In dance, events are not simply stated, but their symbolic essence is revealed and faith is affirmed - through the power of verse, music and movement. All classical dance forms in India have two aspects: Nritta and Nritya. Nritya can be described as pure dance, that is, abstract body movements coordinated with hastas (hand gestures). Nritya is a combination of pure dance with plot. But the plot dance here was very different from pantomime. This is not just an imitation of human behavior. In addition to nritta and nritya, there is a third aspect in the dance tradition of India. This is natya, that is, a performance of action and gestures with or without dance. In general, this is a type of dramatic art. All three of these aspects are considered, however, to be closely related to each other. Speaking about the art of dance, in our opinion, it is necessary to note one of the most striking features of the development of Indian culture as a whole. This is a deep connection between different types of arts. If music, dance and drama were extremely close to dance culture, then literature, painting, sculpture and even architecture were also not divorced or isolated from the dance tradition. The role of literature in dance has been and continues to be extremely important, since nritya, for example, is the interpretation of poetry by dance. In India, there are even entire poems specially written for dance performance. The best example, in our opinion, is the classic work of Sanskrit literature of the 12th century “Gida - Govinda” by Jayadeva. Since dancing initially occupied a large place in temple rituals, the architect provided a special platform on the temple grounds. The famous Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu has a large hall built exclusively for dance performances. The Sun Temple at Kanaraka, Orissa, has a huge and intricately decorated Dance Hall, the Nata Mandal, whose proximity to the sea gives it an ethereal beauty.

The walls of temples in different parts of India, especially in the south and Orissa, are decorated with various friezes and panels depicting dancers and musicians.

The main types of ballroom dances in the 16th - 17th centuries

In Shakespeare’s comedy Much Ado About Nothing, one of the characters, in our opinion, brilliantly characterizes the main dances that existed at the turn of the 16th - 17th centuries: “Courtship, marriage and repentance are the same as the Scottish jig, measured dance and galliard: the first is as ardent and hasty as a Scotch jig, and as full of imagination; marriage is decorously modest, like a measured dance, full of dignity and antiquity; and then repentance sets in and with its developed legs it falls in the galliard faster and faster until it falls into the grave.” These were the main directions of dance at the turn of the 16th - 17th centuries. It should also be noted that if until the end of the 16th century and partly in the 17th century, parterre, “low” dances (bass dances) that did not require jumping from the performers - branles, pavanes, chimes - dominated, then the era of light “flying” French dances began.

1. Branle.

The school of ballroom dancing was formed during the Renaissance and it can be considered that branle, both folk and salon, was the fundamental beginning of the further development of dance art. This dance was originally a folk dance, and its ballroom form was born from this peasant form and was distinguished only by a large number of curtseys and smooth movements, while in the folk branle tapping predominated. The main movements of branle included pavante, courante and gavotte. The musical accompaniment of this dance consisted of rather monotonous tambourine beats, flute sounds and monotonous singing of the dancers. If older people liked to dance a slow double branle, middle-aged people danced a branle with a reprise, then young people preferred a cheerful branle with jumping and raising their legs forward into the air. Thus, the simple branle was the source of all the salon dances that appeared later.

2. Pavana.
Pavana is one of the oldest Spanish dances known to us. Pavane and chimes in the 16th century were the main and most beloved dances. Only the appearance of the minuet made people forget first the chime, and then the pavante. The pavana is believed to be of Italian origin, as Catherine de' Medici was the patroness of all things Italian. The main merit of the pavan, in our opinion, is that it was the first time that public dances acquired certain forms, character and style of performance. Before the pavane, numerous branleys differed from each other only in their names. The pavane also had a specific goal - to show society the majesty of the dancers and the richness of their costumes. The movement of the pavana was the movement of a flaunting peahen. Another difference between pavane and branle was that the pavane figures began with the beginning of the musical phrase, while in branle there was only tempo. The pavana was danced by one or two couples at a time, and there was also a strict order of their order depending on their origin and social status. The king and queen opened the ball, then other noble persons.

3. Minuet.
Not a single dance of the 16th - 17th centuries was as popular as the minuet, which is a generally recognized example of salon dance art. Over the course of several centuries, the minuet either rose to the pinnacle of dance glory, or was subject to temporary oblivion, but was never completely replaced by another dance. Dance historians say that “the minuet is the dance of kings and the king of dances.” At the turn of the 18th century, aristocratic society expressed its attitude towards the minuet in the following phrase: “whoever dances the minuet well does everything well.” The main features of the minuet performance were ceremoniality, gallantry and solemnity. The step of the minuet was very smooth and one movement followed from the other. Pas grave - which means “important, majestic step” - is one of the main dance elements of the minuet. In the 18th century, during the Baroque period, a more dynamic, “fast minuet” appeared. But the minuet is depicted somewhat differently at balls in the 19th century. In these stage minuets, as in the famous minuet from Mozart’s Don Giovanni, which has always been considered a classic example of this dance, a number of dance positions do not correspond to the original minuet of the 17th century. Which, in our opinion, does not in any way detract from the delights of the stage minuet, but, on the contrary, testifies to the enormous plastic richness of this dance. Having survived many eras, the minuet, unfortunately, has not survived to this day, and we can only watch this dance on the theater stage.

Thus, having dwelled in detail on the description of the main ballroom dances of the 16th - 7th centuries, we are clearly convinced that among the most important features of the dances of this time we can distinguish such as smoothness, regularity, importance, which naturally was characteristic of the ideology of all life of that time .

Formation and development of dance culture in Russia

The concept of “dance” was given to the Russians by the Poles who arrived in Moscow during the Time of Troubles with Dmitry the Pretender. Before this, there were no “salon dances” in Rus', as in Western Europe. Women's round dances took place in the towers, and dancing flourished among the people. In general, the attitude towards dancing was wary. “Crazy fun” combined with dancing was considered “a soul-destroying invention of the devil,” “a demonic game.”

Under Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, entertainers were invited for the royal fun - Germans and Poles, including dancers. In 1673, Orpheus, a play with singing and dancing, was performed in the comedy chamber in the Kremlin. In the prologue, Orpheus sang the king's praises and then danced with the two pyramids. At this time, the love of dancing developed not only at the royal court, but also among noble Moscow people who set up their own home theaters (boyar Morozov, Prince Golitsyn, Dolgoruky).
The young Tsar Fedor, who replaced Alexei Mikhailovich, was not a lover of entertainment. The love of dancing was supported only by the ruler Sophia, who gathered girls in her mansions and “arranged dances.”

A turning point occurred under Peter I. After the replacement of long men's suits with short camisoles, Russian dances left court life. Instead, Peter introduced foreign dances. By decree of the tsar, under pain of cruel punishment, all Russian girls were ordered to dance. Russian ladies and gentlemen learned the minuet, polonaise and country dance from captured Swedish officers. Peter himself, his wife Catherine and daughter Elizabeth took part in the dances and did it, according to contemporaries, quite gracefully. The attitude towards dancing at this time was more like a serious, almost “state” matter, which was reflected in the entire order of dance ensembles.

Thus, at this time in Russia, “harmless” dances at first glance turned into a kind of weapon of social struggle against the “reactionary boyars.” The inability to dance becomes shameful, so the boyars begin to appoint teachers (dance masters) for themselves. At the assemblies, strictly developed rules of behavior were established, the manner of communicating with a lady in dance and even in bows. There were also fast dances, including improvisational ones. They said that Peter himself loved to change figures, deliberately frightening and making fun of those who could not dance.
One of the circumstances characterizing the attitude towards dance is that now dance movements were no longer determined in any way: neither by ritual, nor simply by natural human physicality, therefore, in our opinion, a dull feeling of protest arises against obligations imposed from the outside.

The introduction of balls (“assemblies”) by Peter I caused displeasure among older people and great enthusiasm among young people. Since Russian life in the pre-Petrine era was rather dreary from day to day: the main activity was going to church and then sitting in the mansion. Public entertainment was not practiced, only weddings were distinguished by extraordinary pomp. It is interesting, in our opinion, that the Russians never developed pair dances; this, in our opinion, can be explained by the peculiarities of the Orthodox faith, where there has never been a cult of the Mother of God, as in Catholicism. In addition, Orthodoxy made stricter moral demands on people, so the release of bodily energy was impossible in an obvious, open form. The attitude towards Dionysian dances in Rus' was very strict; they were considered a great sin. Peter's reforms made the life of society more harmonious: there was no need to hide one's desire to have fun; moreover, this desire became the top priority among wealthy people. The most common dances at Peter's assemblies were minuet, pavane, chime and others. But Peter considered them very boring and invented his own dance, much more animated. Subsequently, under Anna Ionovna, not only foreign entertainment came into fashion. The Empress also loved Russian dances (“bychok” or “kamarinskaya”).

Social life in the 19th century, its reflection in the development of dance culture.

Compared to the previous era, the 19th century provided individuals with much greater freedom in choosing their life path. Liberation also occurred on a purely spiritual level. The idea of ​​God gradually faded away in the 19th century. Secular life, which became so popular in the previous era, is replacing church life to such an extent that God is remembered only on Sundays. The ideals of society are again turning towards individualism. Romantic impetuosity, the gravitation of spiritual bondage, the aspiration to other, higher ideals, characteristic of the public mood during this period, were clearly manifested in dance. The waltz becomes the king of all dances, which is a way of emancipation from the conventions that were still the mainstay of social life.

In the 19th century, the French dance salon school gradually faded away. Thus, light jumps, considered mandatory in the 18th century, are gradually being replaced by simple steps. At balls, the position of “dance conductor” (“steward”) appears, who was a kind of commander who monitored the conduct of the ball. It was customary to open the ball with a waltz, the first round of which was usually given to the most honorable persons from among the guests, if the hosts of the evening did not grant this honor to the manager himself.

In the 19th century in St. Petersburg, court balls were held in the Winter and Anichkov palaces and were extremely popular. The ball began with a polonaise, which was followed by a minuet. The ball would not be complete without a mazurka and, of course, a waltz. At this time, another dance appeared, the success of which eclipsed the popularity of all the others - the polka. The ball ended with a dance - a game of cotillion, a kind of farewell performance by all participants.

Let's take a closer look at the waltz.

The waltz did not have any of the features of a fashionable salon dance. In addition, before the waltz there was no salon dance where a lady would be hugged around the waist, looking straight into her eyes. And it is in the waltz that the lady and the gentleman for the first time become a single dancing couple. There were official and unofficial protests against the waltz. In Vienna in the first decade of the 19th century, it was forbidden to dance a waltz for more than ten minutes. At balls given in the palaces of the German Kaisers, the waltz was banned throughout almost the entire 19th century, as it was considered a “sensual and obscene dance.” Conservative English society adopted the waltz a quarter of a century later than most other European countries. In Russia, the waltz was also persecuted. Catherine II disliked him, and under Paul I a police order was published prohibiting “the use of the dance called walsen.” But all this only increased the craving for dance, and the 19th century passed under the symbol of the waltz; it was danced in all circles of society. The waltz had a significant influence on the development of all European music of the 19th and 20th centuries.

The forties of the 19th century were a time of rapid passion for polka not only in Paris, but throughout Europe, including Russia. Because literally everyone and everywhere danced, regardless of age and social status.

The most fashionable toilets and dishes were called “a la Polka”. English newspapers then even joked that politics had faded into the background, giving way to the Polish woman.
Under Catherine II, the mazurka appeared in Russia for the first time, but then it had almost no success. Only at the beginning of the 19th century did this dance become very popular in Russian cities. By that time, the mazurka was becoming widespread in other European countries, especially in the Czech Republic, Hungary and France. In Russia there were two mazurkas: salon and folk. Fashionable French dance masters gave folk dance a salon character and the necessary gloss. In this version, the mazurka was danced in the highest St. Petersburg society. The Mazurka gradually replaced the French quadrille and became the apogee of the ball, marking its culmination.

We can say that with the advent of the cancan, a new dance era begins. The cancan originated in Paris around 1830. It was a female dance performed on stage, accompanied by high kicking of the legs. In 1860, many dance classes opened in St. Petersburg, where they danced mainly the cancan.
Thus, having examined in detail the most popular dances of the 19th century, and having clearly traced the reflection of social life in the dance culture of that time, we can draw a conclusion about the significance of dance in that era. The main task of dance, in our opinion, was to maintain the culture of the body on an equal basis with the culture of the spirit. But unlike earlier eras, body culture did not imply a spiritual, religious basis, and the development of body culture became more and more an end in itself for dancing.

Development of Russian dance culture in the first half of the 20th century.

By the 20th century, there were already about 17 dances in Russia, among them the most popular were: polka, Hungarian, minion, fandango, figured waltz, mazurka and many others. By the 20th century, a lot in dance culture was changing. First of all, the quality of dance performance changes, the basis, the path along which the development of world dance art has taken, changes. After a thousand-year break, the Olympic Games are again becoming extremely popular, and from here there is a rapprochement between dance and sports, and the degree of dynamism of the emerging dances increases: tango, foxtrot, twist, rock and roll.

After the disappearance of balls as a form of mass pastime in the 19th century, restaurants began to partially replace their functions (probably because at balls they not only danced, but also dined). So in the second half of the 19th century, restaurants combined both cuisine and often theater (In Russia, for example, restaurants: “Yar”, “Strelna”, and many others). French restaurants of the late 19th century were famous for their cabaret with its semi-decent female dance, the dancers of which, in our opinion, had much in common with the dancers of Ancient Greece and Rome. The presence of such entertainment and its accessibility had a huge impact on the social life of that period, on the entire dance culture of the early 20th century.

The beginning of the 20th century in dance culture can be characterized by the words: “in search of style,” since at that time everything old was destroyed, and the new was foggy and unclear. And in determining the style of this era, dance played a significant role, because, in our opinion, it reflected the aesthetic aspirations of its century with extraordinary brightness; it was a kind of bridge between the world of everyday life and the world of fantasy. The turning point in the political life of the early 20th century entailed a turning point in the creative life of this period. This could not but be reflected in the dance. A real revolution in the dance life of this period was the appearance of the tango dance. Tango was a ballroom, salon dance, and not a pop dance. To perform this dance, an impeccable tailcoat and a stylish, fitted dress were required, since this dance was very strict in nature and no liberties were allowed. A tango dancer resembled a tightly stretched bowstring, with stable facial expressions and maximum body immobility. This is the main difference between tango and previous dances, which invariably involved running, jumping, bouncing, in general, everything that brought the body out of its restrained state.

Tango was based on a rhythmic move, which, in our opinion, was the reason for the great popularity of this dance, since now everyone could dance, even those who could not “jump like a goat” around the hall before. Thus, we can conclude that tango determined the style of the entire dance culture of the first half of the 20th century.

The 20th century continues...

Tired old dances, a changing social climate, the desire of young people to find and realize their own style, different from others - all this led to the extraordinary growth of various directions of dance culture in the 20th century. We can say that in the 20th century, dancing first acquired such an unprecedented scope and turned into a mass form of leisure. And even the most popular balls of the 19th century cannot, in our opinion, compare with such a powerful dance “epidemic” that overtook us in the 20th century. Rap, hip-hop, breakdancing, rave, house, techno, trance are just a small part of the trends that swept the whole world in the second half of the 20th century.

Plato also said: “The nature of all young creatures is fiery and therefore is not able to remain calm either in the body or in the head, but constantly screams and jumps about randomly.” In our opinion, these words can best be attributed to the description of the spirit of dance culture of the late 20th century. In general, the spirit of this time is characterized by temperament and dynamism. And now we can say with confidence that most modern dances have grown into sports. This, of course, is also connected with the spirit of the times; it is not for nothing that sports and the Olympic Games received their rebirth in the 20th century. Another important factor in the rapprochement of dance and sports for women was, in our opinion, a change in beauty standards. Well-fed beauties of the 19th century are being replaced by thin models. Many women, girls dancing at discos, or attending training in any dance studio, pursue primarily the goal of correcting their figure and losing weight.
As for young people, the main criterion when choosing dances here was freedom and the possibility of self-expression. One of the dances that best provided this freedom to young people was hip-hop.

Modern hip-hop includes three directions: rap, breakdancing and graffiti. It requires a special style of clothing and a special worldview. This dance is accessible to everyone; in our opinion, it helps teenagers transform their aggression into creativity.

Another dance that helps relieve nervous tension is the rave. It is believed that even the Indians, after being stung by a scorpion, began a dance similar to modern dances, which lasted for several hours until they were completely exhausted. This method brought recovery. We see something similar in rave. Rave (translated from English as “fury, bustle, mess”) was born in Holland in 1985. Initially, rave was aimed at those who use drugs. Many different styles of music appeared in rave; rave dance very quickly absorbed much of what existed before this trend.

The most famous styles are “trance”, “techno”, “house”, “Deep house”...

“Trance” is cosmic music with smooth movements and the desire to gently come out of your own shell.
“Techno” - here the movements are rigid, fixed, there are a lot of impulses on the arms and legs, all movements are wide and clearly defined.
“House” - there are no clear, sharp movements in it, they are more blurred; the music is physiological, the whole rhythm is designed for body movements. This dance allows for great improvisation.

And of course, speaking about the end of the 20th century, we cannot fail to mention such a trend in dance culture as breakdancing. In essence, breakdancing is a fusion of dance, pantomime, wrestling, and boxing. Correct, in our opinion, is the opinion that breaking develops not only the body, but also character. It requires enormous stamina and patience, as most elements of the break need to be repeated many times. It is believed that the break was born on the New York pavements, and its creators were two warring factions that one day got tired of fighting each other with firearms and knives and preferred to compete in unimaginable dance steps. This is probably why breaking was originally based on various types of wrestling - karate, kung fu, boxing. Gradually, smooth movements of the arms and legs were added to them. Everyone, trying to become the best, added more and more complex acrobatic elements. We can assume that it looked something like this: two groups lined up, specially dressed for fighting, but without weapons, then the music was turned on and the break began. The winners were those who were more resilient, dexterous, fast and flexible. Gradually this dance attracted the attention of choreographers. The break itself is performed either on the floor (somersaults, various turns on the back), or close to the floor, and breakdancing also includes various wave-like movements of the arms and torso.

Thus, having examined several of the most striking, in our opinion, dance styles, we, using the example of these dances, can draw a conclusion about the uniqueness of the artistic culture of the late 20th century. You, of course, noticed that the most characteristic features of the artistic culture of this period were freedom and desire and self-expression, as well as originality, the search for something new and unusual.

In general, the end of the 20th century represents, in our opinion, enormous potential for the development of artistic culture in all its directions and in dance in particular.

Topic 2

Dance culture of ancient civilizations.

Dance of Antiquity. Dance of Ancient Greece. The connection between dance and mythology. Terpsichore. Religious, social, theatrical dances. Dance of Ancient Rome. Dance of mimes. Dance of Ancient India and Ancient Egypt.

Dance of Antiquity. Dance of Ancient Greece. The connection between dance and mythology. Terpsichore. Religious, social, theatrical dances.

In ancient civilizations, dance and music were assigned a deep ideological and social role (a means of education, religious worship, human ennoblement).

The professionalization of musical and dance art led to the emergence of theatrical (stage) dance genres. Gradually separating from the direct connection with labor and everyday rituals, dance acquired the meaning of art, embodying the beauty of the body, various states of the human spirit and was transformed into a theatrical performance. To perform such dances and their musical accompaniment, dancers and musicians of a high professional level were required (they were usually raised from childhood, receiving a profession by inheritance).

The dance art of Ancient Greece is the most studied and systematized, thanks to a huge number of archaeological finds (with numerous images of dancing people) and descriptions in literary sources. True, in most cases only brief descriptions of the dances are found or only names are mentioned indicating in honor of which gods or on what occasion the dance was performed.

Of the states of the Ancient World, only Greece alone was especially clear that dance, in its various forms, was an expression of love, joy and fun of the people. In its entirety, the art of dance, which we are accustomed to calling the word “choreography,” was expressed by the Greeks by the word “orchestics.” The Greek word “choreo” itself, in the literal sense, means ecstasy, so it can apply equally to religious orgies and to all kinds of public and everyday dances. In ancient Greece, the arts were closely related to each other. The Greeks called rhythm order and proportionality observed in body movements. They called the same order and proportionality in relation to sounds harmony. The unity of rhythm and harmony was expressed among the Greeks by the word orchestika, that is, dance, in our understanding.

Dancing occupied a prominent place in the religious, domestic and social life of the Greeks. Various street processions, celebrations, and finally, mysteries and sacraments were, in essence, dance performances, where the role of skillful directors belonged to the priests. And the first roles were assigned to the female dancer, as the best representative of moving painting and plastic arts.

Ancient dances have retained to this day a special, enchanting charm that lies in the extraordinary purity of plastic forms and the harmony of clearly defined lines. The famous ballet reformer Noverre tried to explain them; the entire era of French classicism was interested in them; they inspired the pioneer of modern dance, Isadora Duncan.

Ancient dances stemmed from the symbols of Greek mythology. No matter how they explain the origin of the myths, their essence still lies in the fact that the gods of Olympus, possessing various functions, completely controlled the soul of the Greek, his social and moral life, and were formed into living images with which the Greek had almost real communication. Therefore, in Greek history, myths are difficult to distinguish from reality, and the dances performed have always remained inextricably linked with mythology. The mythological plot completely dominated ancient choreography, and served as rich material for inspiration for choreographers of all subsequent centuries.

The myth provided abundant food for musicians and singers who praised the life of the Olympian gods; myth was the source of philosophical systems for thinkers; myth was used by historians and poets; and of course, the myth had a tremendous influence on Greek creativity in the visual arts and on choreography.

All the little things in everyday life were under the care of the gods. Thanks to such intervention and the free worldview of the ancient Greek, a special code of morality was created that had nothing in common with Christian morality. Independence from outside influences and following only one's own laws and norms greatly contributed to the development of beauty in Ancient Greece. In this way, liberated from prejudice, half-naked choreography with its free bodily movements developed. What may seem immoral for our time was natural for a free, independent Greek who believed in his ideals. For example, in Greek schools (palestra), where the Greek trained his body for the best expression of the spirit, all bodily exercises were performed by both sexes, and, moreover, almost completely naked. The feeling of false shame and embarrassment of one’s body has been lost since childhood. The dances, even with the complete absence of costumes on the performers, represented a purity of morals worthy of respect, were always meaningful, containing a pronounced spiritual mood.

Ancient philosophers claim that Greek dances have a divine origin. Indeed, the Greeks looked at deity as the harmony of the world, and therefore the best means for glorifying it should be correct, proportionate body movements, as indicators of the constant circulation of the forces of nature.

There are many myths about the origin of dance in Ancient Greece, but they all merged into one common idea, due to which the art of choreography was expressed in the female deity - Terpsichore, one of the nine muses who surrounded Apollo. Terpsichore, i.e. “loving dancing” (from the words “I entertain”, “I dance”), personified the symbol of plastic beauty and harmony. According to the Greeks, Terpsichore presided over Greek choirs of singers, musicians and dancers. She was depicted either with a lyre in her hands or with a tambourine, and her head was decorated with feathers and flowers.

The Greeks understood dance very broadly, both as gymnastics, and as a means of education, and as a way of healing the body, and as a mimic art.

Researchers highlight the following types of dances that existed in Ancient Greece:

Religious (sacred);

Gymnastic and military (educational purposes);

Mimic;

Theatrical (stage);

Ritual (wedding);

Household.

Like other peoples of ancient times, dancing and various kinds of acrobatic and gymnastic tricks were an indispensable attribute of the ancient Greek religious cult. Each deity could have its own separate dance ritual. Dances praising Aphrodite were widespread. These were decent, restrained and perfect dances, just like their patroness.

Ritual processions in Ancient Greece were also accompanied by dancing, music and chants. One of these dance processions was Komos(Komos), whose participants - komastas - performed relaxed and frivolous movements to the accompaniment of citharas and flutes.

But perhaps the most popular in the daily life of the ancient Greeks were religious celebrations dedicated to Apollo and Dionysus. They were accompanied by numerous dances, varied in form and character. Moreover, the dances associated with the cult of Apollo were ceremonial, solemn, sedate, while the dances of the Dionysian festivals had a free, passionate and even erotic character. A similar opposition later clearly manifested itself in professional art, primarily in the field of ancient Greek theater (dances of tragedy and comedy).

Among educational gymnastic dances that play a big role in instilling courage and patriotism in young people, one can highlight military dances, in particular Pyrrhikhu and related pyrrhic dances. Early forms of pyrrhichi were known in Crete as early as 2000-1500. BC e. Gradually penetrating into Ancient Greece, pyrrhich became extremely widespread in all its regions, especially in Sparta and Athens, where it was one of the elements in the education of young men and warriors. Complex movements of a gymnastic nature in this dance were supposed to help the harmonious development of the human body. The figures, movements and manipulations of weapons to the beat of music, to the sound of a flute, were very diverse. The performers reproduced military actions and individual battles, as if during real battles. Later, pyrrhiha began to be performed by professional dancers during feast entertainment; its character acquired an element of enchantment and spectacular splendor, and the name of the genre began to be used in relation to any ensemble dance.

The Phrygian dance can be classified as a war dance. Corybantum. It received its name from the mythical predecessors of the priests of Cybele or Rhea in Phrygia, called “Corybants”. With the help of the ringing of their weapons, they drove away the dark forces. The performers who portrayed the Corybantes danced naked, with a shield and a helmet, and sometimes reached the point of frenzy.

Pyrrhiha was also close to another type of ancient Greek dance - Gymnopedia. It was essentially gymnastic exercises to the sounds of a flute or lyre. It was performed by naked youths in the agora of Sparta during one of the annual festivals. The gymnopedia figures resembled the movements and positions used in wrestling and boxing.

Theatrical performances of ancient times were a combination of dramatic action, poetic speech, singing, dancing, gestures, and facial movements. The choir was entrusted with singing and dancing in ancient Greek drama. His movements occurred, as a rule, in one direction, then in the opposite direction, and could be marching in nature or round dancing.

Each type of theatrical performance in Ancient Greece had its own specific circle dance genres. In dancing tragedy There were no virtuoso elements, the actors’ movements were characterized by conventionality and inactivity, and the expressive nature of gestures in more animated episodes. IN comedy In performances, the dances were virtuosic, technically complex and often had a frantic, rough, and sometimes obscene character.

Among the many genres of ancient Greek theater, several fundamental ones should be highlighted - emmelia, cordacium and syckinidae.

Emmelia- originally a round dance of a cult purpose (often at the bedside of a dying person), of a solemn, majestic and sublime nature, at a slow or measured pace. Unlike pyrrhic dances, it was performed by women and was distinguished by the beauty of its forms and grace of plasticity. The movements of the dancers' hands were especially expressive - complex in pattern and expressive in character, while his legs and body were relatively motionless. Having originated as a religious dance, emmelia subsequently became an integral part of ancient Greek tragedy.

The main dance genre of comedy was cordak, whose movements included various spins and jumps at a frantic pace. Although it was related to the content of the play, it was still not a simple illustration of the action. Most likely, the kordak consisted of inserted comic scenes, a kind of choreographic buffoonery. Interestingly, this dance was considered unworthy of serious men.

The dance of the satirical drama had a lot in common with him - sikkinida, focusing on the tastes of ordinary people and often representing a parody of many aspects of public life.

It should be noted that all Greek dances were dominated by facial expressions. She was inextricably linked with mechanical movements. According to researchers, Greek dance is “imitating” all the time. There is no other nation where dancing and facial expressions are so closely related. In dance, the Greek sees not only a natural desire to move, but also ensures that every gymnastic movement corresponds to oral speech. He attached a special symbolic meaning to every gesture. Thus, Greek dance is a silent, animated conversation, set off by rhythmic movements.

Memes(from ancient Greek - “imitation”) - stage performances of a mass nature in the taste of spectators from the lower strata, performances of acrobats and magicians, etc., scenes with singing and dancing, and finally a whole real-life satirical farce. Actors in this type of theater were also called mimes.

Originating among the broad masses in different places of Greece, mime was funny scenes with lively dialogue, which were snatched from the life of small artisans, villagers and layers close to them. This genre developed widely in the Hellenistic era of Greece in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. At this time, mimes were created not for the stage, but only for entertaining reading and entered the orbit of interests not only of craftsmen, but also of higher social strata.

Mimes also became widespread in Ancient Rome. Having long flourished in the south of Italy and existing in Rome as a grassroots mass theater, mimes firmly captured the stage by the end of the 2nd and 1st centuries. BC, when the victories of democracy sharpened them as a weapon of class struggle, making the theater a place of socio-political satire. Reflecting the life of small artisans (dyers, rope makers, etc.), these memes are often directed against the ruling classes - large landowners, etc. - sometimes with sharp satire on religion. The most obscene stories were prevalent here. The traditional character of the mime was a fool, showered with all sorts of abuse; an improvisational element on the topic of the day often burst into the text. As a class genre of the lower classes, the Roman mime was written in the language of these layers with all the vulgarisms and slang of city taverns.