Pedagogical ideas and experience of Pestalozzi. Test paper Pedagogical views and ideas I

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi made a huge contribution to the development of preschool pedagogy. Already in his youth, he strived to selflessly serve the people. In 1774, he opened an orphanage for children from poor families, where he himself taught them reading, counting and writing, and also educated them. It was assumed that the educational institution would be supported by money earned by the students themselves, who worked in the fields, on spinning and weaving looms. Thus, the teacher made attempts to combine children's education with productive work. However, in order to maintain the orphanage, enormous physical exertion was required from the children, and Pestalozzi, being a humanist and democrat, could not allow the exploitation of his pupils. He viewed work as a means of developing physical strength and wanted to give children versatile labor training. This was Pestalozzi’s most important teaching experience, and after it he devoted the next eighteen years to literary activity.

Teacher's views and ideas were undoubtedly democratic in nature, but were historically limited. Pestalozzi's Basic Principles:
- the principle of the self-worth of the individual, which denied the possibility of sacrificing the individual even for the good of society;
- the principle of conformity with nature, which implies the development of the physical and spiritual capabilities of the child, inherent in him by nature, through education;
- the principle of clarity, promoting the all-round development of the child.

The most important means of educating Pestalozzi considered the teacher’s love for children. The educational influence of the teacher’s personality is of primary importance for the child. Based on these principles, Pestalozzi built a methodology for elementary teaching. “Elementary education” assumed the construction of the learning process in such a way that in the process of cognition of an object, children highlight the simplest elements, moving forward in learning from simple to complex, rising from one level to another, improving more and more knowledge and skills.

Works of Pestalozzi played a huge role in the development of pedagogy as a science. He laid the foundations of the methods of primary education. His textbooks became for a long time a model and indicator for the creativity of subsequent teachers. The speech development exercises he developed are used in elementary school practice. His idea of ​​building the educational process on the basis of mutual love between the teacher and the child became central to humanistic pedagogy.

Pestalozzi's statements about children:

• A child is a mirror of the actions of his parents.

• Nature has placed in the mother's heart the first and most urgent concern for maintaining peace in the earliest period of a child's life. This care manifests itself in people everywhere in the form of a mother's inherent maternal strength and maternal devotion.

• The hour of a child's birth is the first hour of his education.

• A child is loved and believed before he begins to think and act.

• The initial principles and points of contact with what a child should learn at school are prepared and exist in him thanks to knowledge gleaned from observations in home life.

• I try to introduce children into the thick of life and explain to them how any individual good trait of a person, if it remains isolated and does not find support for itself in all that is good that is in human nature, each time risks getting lost again in a person or receiving such a direction, which can equally easily lead to both his downfall and his improvement.

• One should not strive to turn children into adults early; it is necessary that they gradually develop in accordance with the situation and circumstances that await them, so that they learn to bear the burden of life easily and be happy at the same time.

• In general, it is necessary to achieve a situation in which it would be impossible for the child to win anything by lying; on the contrary, being caught in a lie must pose a significant danger to him.

Pestalozzi's pedagogical ideas in quotes:

• Education and only education is the goal of school.

• My first principle is that we can only raise a child well to the extent that we know what he feels, what he is capable of, what he wants.

• Primary education is capable of promoting and encouraging the natural course of development of thinking abilities through its art.

• The school must instill in its pupils such logical thinking skills that would be in harmony with human nature itself.

• Fathers and mothers still believe in holy innocence that if children attend school and are in it, then they are developing both physically and morally.

• The teaching of scientific disciplines presupposes, therefore, a preliminary enjoyment of the freedom which it limits, just as the harnessing of an adult animal to a plow or cart is a voluntary exercise of those powers which the young animal acquired and developed during the period when it lived and roamed freely in the pasture. .

• There is no doubt that only one mother is able to lay the correct sensory foundation for a person’s upbringing. Her real actions, to which she is prompted only by bare instinct, are, in essence, correct, natural means of moral education.

• Every good upbringing requires that the mother's eye at home, daily and hourly, unmistakably read in the eyes, lips and brow of the child every change in his state of mind. It essentially requires that the power of the educator be the power of the father, animated by the presence of the totality of family relations.

• The nature of my means of intellectual education is in no way arbitrary, it is necessary. Since these means are good only insofar as they are determined by the very essence of human nature, they are also basically unchanged.

Philosophical thoughts of Pestalozzi:

• ...it was a misfortune, and not our fault, that we were brought up not to do good, but only to dream about it.

• I lived for years in the circle of more than fifty beggar children, I shared my bread with them in poverty, I myself lived like a beggar in order to teach the beggars to live like humans.

• We know what we want.

• To change people, you need to love them. The influence on them is proportional to the love for them.

• According to the laws of nature, words of love are not spoken before feelings mature.

• In the country there is blind trust of the people in schools, whatever they are.

• The essence of humanity develops only in the presence of peace. Without it, love loses all the power of its truth and beneficial influence.

• Anxiety is essentially a product of sensual suffering or sensual desires; it is the child of cruel need or even more cruel egoism.

• Mental development and the culture of mankind that depends on it require constant improvement of the logical means of art for the purpose of nature-conforming development of our mental abilities, our abilities for research and judgment, to the awareness and use of which the human race has risen for a long time.

• Morality lies in the perfect knowledge of good, in the perfect ability and desire to do good.

• Each of us is completely free, and only as free people do we live, love with active love and sacrifice ourselves to fulfill our goal.

• The eye wants to look, the ear wants to hear, the foot wants to walk, and the hand wants to grab. But the heart also wants to believe and love. The mind wants to think. In any inclination of human nature there is a natural desire to emerge from a state of lifelessness and ineptitude and become a developed force, which in an undeveloped state is inherent in us only in the form of its embryo, and not the force itself.

• Man's ability to perceive truth and justice is essentially a comprehensive, sublime, pure inclination, which can find nourishment in simple, laconic, but broad views, aspirations and feelings.

• The three forces together - the ability to observe, the ability to speak and the ability to think - should be considered the totality of all the means of developing mental powers.

• A significant number of people receive education not through the assimilation of abstract concepts, but through intuition, not through the brilliance of deceptive verbal truths, but through the stable truth inherent in the acting forces.

• True nature-conforming education, by its very essence, evokes the desire for perfection, the desire for the improvement of human powers.

• Man himself develops the foundations of his moral life - love and faith, in accordance with nature, if only he demonstrates them in practice. Man himself develops the foundations of his mental powers, his thinking, in accordance with nature, only through the very action of thinking.

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Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (German: Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, January 12, 1746, Zurich - February 17, 1827, Brugg) - Swiss educator, one of the largest humanist educators of the late 18th - early 19th centuries, who made a significant contribution to the development of pedagogical theory and practice.

He completed two courses at the Carolinum Collegium. He headed the “Institution for the Poor in Neuhof” (1774-80), an orphanage in Stanz (1798-99), institutes in Burgdorf (1800-04) and Yverdon (1805-25).

The author of numerous pedagogical works, of which the main ones are the world-famous “Lingard and Gertrude” (1781-87), “How Gertrude teaches her children” (1801), “Letter to a friend about being in Stanza” (1799), “Swan Song” "(1826). In 1792, the Legislative Assembly of the French Republic awarded Pestalozzi the title of “citizen of the French Republic.”

In Pestalozzi’s worldview, the ideas of French educators, mainly J. J. Rousseau, were combined with the theories of German idealist philosophers G. Leibniz, I. Kant, I. G. Fichte and others. Pestalozzi believed that education should be natural: it is designed to develop spiritual and physical powers inherent in human nature in accordance with the child’s inherent desire for all-round activity. This development is carried out through consistent and systematic exercises - first in the family, then at school.

Pestalozzi's theory of elementary education includes mental, moral, physical and labor education, which are carried out in close connection and interaction to ultimately ensure the harmonious development of man. The idea of ​​developmental education put forward by Pestalozzi K.D. Ushinsky called it a great discovery. Pestalozzi developed the first method primary education children in counting, measurement and speech, significantly expanded the content of primary education, including basic information from geometry, geography, drawing, singing, and gymnastics.

Books (5)

Selected pedagogical works. In three volumes. Volume 1

The first volume includes Pestalozzi's works dating from 1774 to 1790.

It includes “Pestalozzi’s Diary about the upbringing of his son,” articles and materials highlighting the neurofic experience of combining education with the productive work of children and Pestalozzi’s social and literary activities after the closure of the “Institution for the Poor.” In addition, this volume contains the novel “Lingard and Gertrude”, as well as Pestalozzi’s letters to his home teacher Petersen, dating back to 1782 - 1784.

Selected pedagogical works. In three volumes. Volume 2

The second volume, covering 1791 - 1804, contains materials reflecting Pestalozzi’s attitude to the French bourgeois revolution, as well as his activities in the conditions of preparation for the Swiss bourgeois revolution and the Helvetic Republic that arose in 1798.

This volume contains works dating back to Pestalozzi's stay in Stanz and Burgdorf. One of his most important works is published, “How Gertrude Teaches Her Children,” as well as a number of articles on the theory of learning that have not previously been translated into Russian.

Selected pedagogical works. In three volumes. Volume 3

The third volume is devoted to the period 1805 - 1827. and contains works written by Pestalozzi during the existence of the Yverdon Institute, as well as in last years life in Neuhof.

This volume, along with such well-known works as “Views and Experiences Concerning the Idea of ​​Elementary Education”, “Swan Song”, includes some of Pestalozzi’s works published abroad, revealing his views on preparing poor children for activities in the field of “industry” .

Representative office of the Bashkir State University

Department of Psychology and Pedagogy

ABSTRACT

subject: « Pedagogical activity and theory

elementary education"

I. G. Pestalozzi

Performed:

Velkova

Olga Alexandrovna

Checked:

P L A N

1. Life and teaching activity of Pestalozzi.

2. Basic provisions of pedagogical theory.

3. Basics of didactics by Pestalozzi. Theory of elementary education.

4. Creation of private methods of initial training.

5. The meanings of Pestalozzi’s pedagogical theory.

LITERATURE

1. V.Z. Smirnov. History of pedagogy. Education. 1965

2. M.V. Makarevich, I.E. Lakin, A.Kh. Leverages. Reader on the history of pedagogy. Publishing house "Higher School". Minsk. 1971

3. V.M. Clarin, A.N. Dzhurinsky. Pedagogical heritage. Moscow. "Pedagogy" 1987

Life and teaching activities

Pestalozzi.

Switzerland is the birthplace of Pestalozzi. Heinrich Pestalozzi was born in Zurich in 1746. His father, a doctor, died early. The boy was raised by his mother and a devoted maid. The family's financial situation was difficult. As a child, observing the life of Swiss peasants, Pestalozzi saw how they were cruelly oppressed by both the nobles - landowners and the owners of manufactories, who distributed work to the peasants at home. The boy was imbued with the conviction that “all evil comes from the city,” and declared: “I will help the peasants more.”

Pestalozzi received his education first in the German primary school, and then at a high Latin school. This school, with its poor curriculum and unprepared teachers, left the young man with difficult memories,

Some professors of the higher school where Pestalozzi studied widely introduced young people to various kinds of philosophical and political literature. As a 17-year-old youth, Pestalozzi read “Emile” by Rousseau. The appearance of Rousseau’s “Public Court” made a strong impression on Pestalozzi and strengthened his conviction in the need to serve the people, Young Zurich residents, including Pestalozzi, organized a semi-legal circle. At meetings of this circle, issues of the history of politics, morality, and the problem of educating a new man in the spirit of Rousseau were discussed. The circle was soon closed by the city authorities, and young Pestalozzi, among others, was briefly arrested, arrested

The arrest did not cool Pestalozzi; he still sought to help the people, the peasantry. The life of the peasants rightly seemed to him extremely difficult. In order to help the peasants, Pestalozzi studies agriculture. In 1774, he attempted to help the people: he opened a shelter for orphans and street children on his Neuhof farm. In his opinion, the orphanage should have been maintained using the funds that the children themselves earned. Pestalozzi taught children reading, writing and counting. They were also taught to spin and weave. He intended in this way to combine learning with productive work. Pestalozzi could not, of course, take the path of exploiting child labor. Pestalozzi did not have enough funds, and in 1780 he was forced to close his shelter. Pestalozzi devoted 18 years to summing up his experience and literary work. In 1781, he completed and published his famous pedagogical novel Lingard and Gertrude. This novel was a great success, since in it the author wanted to show exactly how the life of the peasants should be rebuilt on new principles. This novel depicts the life of a village in Switzerland at a time when the centuries-old foundations of the feudal system began to collapse there and manufacturing production was already widespread. Under these conditions, the Swiss peasantry experienced an acute process of impoverishment of working farms. Pestalozzi shows in his novel 3 main groups of the peasantry: wealthy households; medium-sized and bankrupt farms.

The main character of the novel is a reasonable peasant woman, Gertrude, a teacher, a pastor and a landowner with their joint efforts to ensure that the peasants improve their financial situation, establish patriarchal relationships and lead a pious lifestyle. Gertrude set an example of maintaining a rational farming system and combined the education of her children with their work. The teacher taught at school according to the model of Gertrude. Thus, in the novel “Lingard and Gertrude” Pestalozzi outlined ways to help the peasants and at the same time showed that every mother should be able to teach children,

The novel was a great success. It has been translated into other languages. The novel clearly expresses the idealization of the landowner. But the main content of the novel reflected the aspirations of not only Pestalozzi. Dreams of a possible improvement in the lives of workers worried the minds of all the advanced bourgeois intelligentsia of that time.

The Legislative Assembly of the French Republic in 1792 awarded Pestalozzi the title of “French citizen” for his novel “Lingard and Gertrude” and for his outstanding teaching work.

When the bourgeois revolution took place in Switzerland (1798), Pestalozzi, with the consent of the government of the young republic, went to Stanz and opened a shelter for street children, which accepted 80 children aged 5-10 years. The condition of the children, both physically and morally, was poor. Pestalozzi reports that “many arrived with inveterate scabies, many with broken heads or in rags, thin as skeletons, yellow, with bared teeth and at the same time with fear in their eyes; some were insolent, with begging habits; others are depressed by distress, patient but distrustful, hard-hearted and timid.

Pestalozzi considered it necessary to build a family-type orphanage, re-educate children, and conduct education there, combined with productive labor. Pestalozzi gave all of himself to these children. “My hand lay in theirs, my eyes looked into theirs. My tears flowed along with theirs, and my smile followed their smile. They were outside the world, outside the Stanza, they were with me and I was with them. Their food was my food, their drink my drink. I had nothing: no home, no friends, no servants, there were only them. I slept with them: in the evening in bed I talked with them and taught them until they fell asleep - they themselves wanted it.” Pestalozzi did not teach his children either morality or religion; the example of Pestalozzi himself was a model for schoolchildren.

However, Pestalozzi's activities in Stanza continued for several months. Due to hostilities, the shelter premises were used as an infirmary and the shelter was closed. This was a hard blow for him.

Soon Pestalozzi received a position as a teacher in Burgdorf, and a little later he and his employees opened his own institute. There he develops the simplified teaching experiments begun in Stanza, setting himself the task of establishing methods by which every mother could easily teach her children. At the very beginning of the 19th century, Pestalozzi’s works were published: “How Gertrude Teaches Her Children”, “A Book for Mothers”, “The ABC of Observation”, “Visual Teaching of Number”.

After the institute moved to Munchenbuchsee, and then to Iferten, Pestalozzi continued the activities of his institute in the castle provided to him; it was a large educational institution. Pestalozzi became a famous teacher, he was appreciated in various circles. The composition of the institute's students is changing dramatically: these are no longer the children of peasants, not street children, but in the vast majority the children of aristocrats, landowners, and wealthy people.

Pestalozzi is now not satisfied with his activities. He feels that he is already standing far from the people, much further than before. Fatigue and dissatisfaction - all this taken together had a serious impact on both his health and his activities.

In 1825, after a 20-year stay in Ifertene, Pestalozzi dissolved the institute and returned to his grandson in Neuhof, where he began his teaching career half a century ago. Here, already 80 years old, Pestalozzi wrote his last work - “Swan Song”. In 1827, at the age of 82, Pestalozzi died. On the tombstone it was written: “Savior of the poor in Neuhof, popular preacher in Lingard and Gertrude, father of orphans in Stanze, founder of a new public school in Burdorf and Yverdon, educator of humanity. Man, Christian, citizen. Everything for others, nothing for yourself."

BASIC POINTS

PESTALOZZI'S PEDAGOGICAL THEORY

The most important goal of education, according to Pestalozzi, is the development of a person’s natural abilities and his constant improvement. Pestalozzi preached the harmonious development of human strengths and abilities; all good inclinations of a person should be maximally developed. Strengths are given to man by nature; one must only be able to develop, strengthen, direct them and eliminate harmful external influences and obstacles that can disrupt the natural course of development, and for this one must master the laws of development of the “physical and spiritual nature of the child.” The center of all education is the formation of a person and his moral character. “Active love for people” is what should lead a person forward morally. For Pestalozzi, the religious principle dissolves in morality. Pestalozzi has a negative attitude towards official religion and its ministers.

Pestalozzi attaches great importance to family education. In the matter of public education, he emphasizes in one of his works, one should imitate the advantages that lie in family education. Pestalozzi points out that a feeling of love for children, trust in them, discipline, a sense of gratitude, patience, duty, moral feelings, etc. arise from the child's relationship to the mother.

How should we develop the powers and abilities inherent in human nature? Through exercise. Each ability inherent in a person requires and forces a person to exercise it.

Pestalozzi was not a revolutionary, but sought to improve the situation of the poorest part of the peasantry. He believed that labor should play a crucial role in raising children of low-income parents, since the life purpose of these children is to work. In his opinion, the labor education of the children of peasants and artisans should be the main means of improving the situation of the people.

The combination of learning with production work (craft and agricultural) was one of the main provisions in the pedagogical practice and theory of Pestalozzi.

At school, children, according to Pestalozzi (“Lingard and Gertrude”) spend the whole day at spinning and weaving looms; There is a plot of land at the school, and each child cultivates three beds and takes care of the animals. Children learn the processing of flax and wool, get acquainted with the management of the best farms in the village, as well as with the work of a handicraft watch workshop. Children were engaged in tree planting, repairing wooden bridges, teaching peasants how to keep account books, etc. During work, as well as during rest hours, the teacher teaches children literacy and arithmetic lessons and imparts basic knowledge to them. Pestalozzi emphasized the educational importance of labor education for the formation of a person. During his work, he strove to “warm and develop the minds of children” because the goal he set for himself was the education of a person, and “not agriculture, housekeeping, which are means.” Harmonious development of personality involves the development of the mind, heart and hand. Only on the basis of labor is it possible to develop a person’s spiritual strength and abilities. Labor education, according to Pestalozzi, is impossible in isolation from mental and moral education.

However, such “practical” labor education actually reduced the level of general educational training. It is clear that such a combination of general educational knowledge with difficulty is purely mechanical in nature and is not an organic combination of learning with productive labor.

The basis of Pestalozzi's didactics.

Theory of elementary education.

Pestalozzi significantly expanded the primary school curriculum, introducing reading and writing skills, counting and measurement, drawing, gymnastics, singing, as well as some knowledge of geography, history, and natural science.

The process of cognition, according to Pestalozzi, is that “first, from a sea of ​​confused observations, certain observations emerge, then from certain observations, clear concepts, and from the last, precise concepts.” The initial stage of the learning process is observation. To move from observations to new concepts, you need to realize the three basic elements of all knowledge: number, form and word. Pestalozzi set himself the task of finding such forms and methods of teaching, using which a peasant mother could teach her children. The basis of all knowledge, according to Pestalozzi, are elements. Every person, in his opinion, when he wants to find out something incomprehensible, always asks himself three questions: 1) How many objects do he have before his eyes? 2) What do they look like, what is their shape? 3) What are they called? “Number, form and word, as Pestalozzi puts it; elementary means of all learning." In initial learning, form corresponds to measurement, number to counting, and word to speech. Thus, elementary learning comes down to the ability to measure, count and speak. Such learning through exercises in measurement, counting and speech awakens in the child the most important quality - the ability to think.

This, according to Pestalozzi, is the main and ultimate goal of education in a public school.

It should be noted that Pestalozzi distinguishes between the development of thinking and the accumulation of knowledge. He considered the important task of the school to be the awakening of spiritual powers and abilities, the development of the ability to think, i.e. formal education. He points out that we need to intensively enrich ourselves with ideas.” This position of Pestalozzi played a huge role in the fight against dogmatism and scholasticism, for active methods of teaching and education in school.

However, Pestalozzi's theory of elementary education is not limited to just a didactic problem. The idea of ​​elementary education in Pestalozzi’s understanding can also be interpreted as the nature-appropriate development of the child’s mental, moral and physical strength.

Creation of private methods

primary education.

Having set himself the task of training and educating peasant children, and therefore organizing a “people's school” for them, Pestalozzi tried to create the foundations of a methodology for primary education subjects.

Pestalozzi based the development of his native language teaching methodology on the principle of child speech development. Pestalozzi defended the sound method of teaching literacy, which was extremely important at that time, since the letter-stepping method still dominated everywhere.

Pestalozzi gives a number of instructions for increasing children's vocabulary, closely linking the teaching of their native language with clarity and communication of basic information on natural science, geography and history.

Through complex exercises, Pestalozzi sought to achieve positive results: to develop in children the ability to observe, to establish the signs of an object or phenomenon, to develop the skills of clear and full description subject. This very idea about the positive meaning of such activities is correct, but their practical implementation was characterized by elements of formalism.

To acquire writing skills, Pestalozzi recommended conducting preliminary exercises in drawing straight and curved lines - the elements of letters. These exercises are widely used in school to this day. Pestalozzi suggested linking learning to write with measuring objects and drawing, as well as with the development of speech. He paid especially great attention to spelling correctness of writing in the first years of training.

To teach measurements, Pestalozzi recommends taking a square, its sides and dividing the square into parts, various geometric shapes, linking learning to measure with the development of the child’s speech. The child sketches the measurement results; these exercises in turn form the basis for writing. Objecting to the method of teaching arithmetic based on memorizing the rules, Pestalozzi in his method of initial teaching of counting proposed a different method of “studying numbers” - to form concepts about number, starting with the element of each integer - one. Based on the child’s visual representations, he teaches actions first with a unit. After the children have mastered all this, he suggests complicating the counting, initially operating with one and the first ten numbers formed from one. To teach fractions, Pestalozzi took a square and showed on it, taking it as a unit, the relationship between the parts and the whole. Based on this idea of ​​Pestalozzi, his followers introduced into school practice the so-called arithmetic box, which is widely used in school today.

Pestalozzi also gave a number of instructions on teaching geography. From near to far, based on direct observations of the surrounding area, Pestalozzi leads students to the perception of more complex geographical concepts. He recommends sculpting terrain reliefs from clay and only then moving on to the map. Beginning familiarization with the area from a school plot of land and the relief of his native village, during the study of which students receive elementary geographical ideas, Pestalozzi then gradually expanded them, and students received ideas about the entire earth.

Thus, Pestalozzi outlined a relatively broad program of primary education and gave detailed methodological instructions for its practical implementation.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PESTALOZZI’S PEDAGOGICAL THEORY

Pestalozzi was an outstanding teacher of the past. He saw the suffering of the peasantry and tried to help them in every possible way through school and education. He did not seek anything revolutionary from the current situation. He was inspired by the ideas of some French enlighteners, especially Rousseau, who inspired him to come closer to the people.

Pestalozzi devoted himself entirely to raising children, he created the theory of elementary education, which contributed to the development of public schools in Europe in the 19th century, began to develop private methods, and they were widely used in elementary schools. However, the elements of formalism inherent in Pestalozzi’s pedagogical theory and developed by his students also had some negative impact on the public school.

Pestalozzi's views were historically limited: he could not understand and did not understand the class nature of education in a class society and at the same time, in his own way, he tried with all his might to help the working people. “Pestalozzi dreamed of a school that would meet the needs of the masses, would be willingly accepted by them and would be largely the creation of them own hands"- wrote N.K. Krupskaya.

; He especially struggled with spelling.

Having completed his primary education, Pestalozzi entered a Latin secondary school in 1754, and in 1763 entered the Zurich higher school Collegium Carolinum, which prepared both for a spiritual career and for occupying various government positions, which required a humanitarian education.

Entering the university, Pestalozzi saw himself as a theologian. At this time, such famous Zurich scientists as Jacob Bodmer and Johann Breitinger taught at the Collegium Carolinum. had a great influence on the worldview of the young Pestalozzi. Studying at the Collegium Carolinum gave Pestalozzi a thorough classical education, but by 1765 he decided to abandon his ecclesiastical career and left this educational institution.

During his student years, Pestalozzi took an active part in the bourgeois-democratic movement that arose in the 50-60s of the 18th century among the advanced Swiss intelligentsia. Reading Rousseau's Emile had a particular influence on Pestalozzi. Possessing a remarkable gentle character, sensitive and responsive to people’s grief, Pestalozzi emotionally perceived the world around him.

After leaving the Collegium Carolinum in 1765, Pestalozzi, as some of his biographers believe, independently prepared to become a lawyer, however, the need to quickly create a secure financial position for himself (this need was dictated by the fact that Pestalozzi chose his bride - Anna Schultges - from a rich and eminent merchant family) forced him in the fall of 1767 to take up farming on the Kirschfeld estate. In the autumn of 1769, the wedding of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and Anna Schultges took place.

In the same year, Pestalozzi acquired a small estate near Zurich, which he called “Neuhof” (German: Neuhof - new courtyard). There he was going to implement some reforms in the field of agriculture and involve the surrounding peasants in them. However, Pestalozzi did not have outstanding abilities for economic activity; his five-year experiments did not produce the expected results and significantly undermined Pestalozzi’s financial position.

At this time, he comes to the conclusion that the peasant children who are left unattended most need his help. Pestalozzi decides to devote his strength and remaining funds to raising the children of the poor and organizes an “Institution for the Poor” on his estate, in which he tries for the first time to implement his ideal of a labor school. Thanks to the support of the local community, Pestalozzi hosts about 50 children, whom he trains in field work in the summer and crafts in the winter. Pestalozzi personally worked with children of all ages in mental arithmetic, reading, writing, and had conversations about nature and people’s lives.

However, in the “institution for the poor,” along with education, the task was to provide children with income, through which it was necessary to fully repay their maintenance and be able to repay the loan taken by Pestalozzi to create a school. The work of the orphanage pupils was low-productive and took up considerable time from them, to the detriment of mental education. Pestalozzi himself recognized this, but he could not allow the cruel exploitation of child labor that existed in the so-called “industrial schools” of that time; and in 1780 Pestalozzi was forced to close the Institution for the Poor.

In extreme financial need and unable to do what he loves, Pestalozzi takes up his pen. During the period from 1780 to 1798, he wrote a number of works; Pestalozzi seeks to use literary activity to promote his ideas. In 1780, he wrote a short work entitled “The Leisure of a Hermit,” which was a collection of aphorisms. It was received coolly by readers. But it is in it that Pestalozzi sets out his views, which he will develop later. Big success had a socio-pedagogical novel in four parts, “Lingard and Gertrude, a book for the people” (). This is a story about how a simple, intelligent and respected peasant woman in her village, skillfully raising her children, convinced her fellow villagers to open a school in the village. From vague and ardent dreams, Pestalozzi moves on to the harsh prose of life: “it is possible to plug the hole from which the people’s misfortunes flow” only when the level of education of the people rises. But since the people have neither the means nor the strength to equip a large number of schools, education, according to Pestalozzi, should be transferred to mothers. To facilitate this task, mothers must be provided with special guidance, which was written by Pestalozzi.

The bourgeois revolution in Switzerland prompted Pestalozzi to become more active social activities. The revolutionary government of Switzerland demands Pestalozzi's talent and, when many orphaned street children remain in the canton of Nidwalden after the suppression of the uprising of the highlanders, he goes to the center of the canton of Stans to organize an orphanage. The Swiss government, some of whose members sympathized with Pestalozzi, provided him with the dilapidated war-damaged buildings of the Ursuline convent at Stans.

To a child, only those concepts seem clear to the clarity of which nothing else can be added by personal experience... The path to achieving clear concepts lies through a gradual, accessible to children, understanding of all objects, a clear understanding of which is sought from them.

Thanks to this approach, it is possible to lead a child not only to abstract knowledge, but to the concept of the essence of an object in its entirety.

However, this ultimate goal can be achieved only by a very gradual understanding of the concepts of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. This process, built on the principle “from simple to complex,” first allows children to analyze the signs and properties of objects, and then, as information is generalized, come to clear concepts about them.. At the forefront of this method of teaching is the goal of teaching children logical thinking, activating their intelligence for setting problems and solving them.

The result of nature-conforming education, among other things, Pestalozzi believes is the rise of the spiritual and mental strength of children, the development of their abilities, the formation of a healthy and holistic human personality. Thus, Pestalozzi was an opponent of the dominant theories of formal and material education in his time. Formal education emphasized the development of children's memory, attention, perception and other psychological functions; the material, on the contrary, considered its task primarily to provide children with knowledge. And only Pestalozzi’s theory of nature-conforming education combined both of these types of education and proved that they are complementary and inseparable.

Pestalozzi proposes to rely on knowledge of human psychology when determining the foundations of education. In search of a common psychological source of methods of education and training, he comes to the conclusion that these are the elements - the simplest components of human knowledge. For Pestalozzi, knowledge begins not with sensory observation, but with active contemplation of ideal objects of similar elements. Pestalozzi calls, following Rousseau, to return in education to “high and simple conformity with nature.” However, he placed different emphasis on the relationship between biological and social factors of upbringing, putting forward the thesis “life shapes.” Education is viewed as a diverse social process, and it is argued that “circumstances shape a person, but a person also shapes circumstances. Man has within himself the power to bend them in various ways according to his will. By doing this, he himself takes part in the formation of himself and in the influence of the circumstances acting on him.

Any knowledge, according to Pestalozzi, should be presented to children in such a way that they can see the connection of these laws with those already known and understood. Pestalozzi repeatedly criticized in his writings the verbalism of education, that is, driving knowledge into children’s heads by the method of mechanical memorization, cramming, and not by the method of logical explanation. Children must learn to speak and think “in accordance with the laws of nature.”

Pestalozzi saw one of the necessary conditions for the acquisition of knowledge as the consciousness of acquiring this knowledge, the conviction of children in its necessity and usefulness. Pestalozzi considers the most important task of a teacher to be the ability to arouse and maintain student interest in classes.

In this regard, the great importance of matching the complexity of learning to the strengths of the student is visible. Such correspondence is achieved by the teacher’s ability to organize a consistent and gradual transition from simple to complex, from easy to difficult, from close to distant. Pestalozzi puts forward the requirement of continuity of learning, adding knowledge in small portions to the already acquired mass, which ensures constant movement forward. Also, there should be a gradual transition from sensory exercises to logical exercises, from observation through naming to clarification. It is important to prevent insufficiently thought-out, hasty conclusions.

An essential point of Pestalozzi’s teaching is the correct organization of a child’s observation of objects and phenomena in the surrounding world. The art of education, he believes, consists in the ability to increase the number of objects to observe, ensure the sequence of their appearance, and increase their attractiveness for the child. Thus, the means that form the child’s logical abilities must be consistent with the means that form his ability to observe - only under this condition will the child’s development be harmonious.

In his “Method” memo, Pestalozzi identifies the following most essential principles of learning:

• Bringing all essentially interconnected objects in consciousness into the same connection in which they are found in nature.
• The subordination of unimportant details to essential ones and the priority of genuine observations over mediated knowledge.
• The arrangement of things in consciousness according to the priority of meanings that they have in nature.
• Systematization of all objects and phenomena according to their properties.
• Using all senses to understand the world.
• The arrangement of knowledge in a logically sequential series, where each subsequent concept includes the previous one.
• Perfecting more simple concepts, before getting into the complex stuff.
• Formalization of the final judgment only after the complete completion of the perception of the object about which the judgment is made.
• Independence of judgment based on a variety of means of influence.
• Taking into account whether the subject of study is close or far from the organs of perception (both in the narrow and in the broad ideological sense).

The mechanism of sensory human nature is essentially subject to the same laws according to which physical nature everywhere develops its powers. According to these laws, the most essential parts of the taught subject must be firmly imprinted in the human mind; then gradually, but with unabated force, less essential parts must be added to these essential parts in such a way that all parts of the taught subject ... retain a living connection with each other, but corresponding to its meaning. .

The essence of elementary education Pestalozzi

The most important part of the doctrine of nature-conforming education is the theory of elementary education. The purpose of elementary education is to give the child basic concepts on the basis of which one can build and develop knowledge about the world around him.

In the mental life of a person, Pestalozzi notices five “physical-mechanical” laws: the law of gradualness and consistency, the law of connectivity, the law of joint sensations, the law of causality and the law of mental originality. These laws must be applied to education and training - and they are satisfied only by clarity, since in the mental life of a person concepts develop from sensations and ideas. If they have no idea about this lining, then they are empty and useless. Visibility is achieved by the participation of all external senses in the acquisition and assimilation of knowledge. The assimilation of knowledge reveals a threefold ability in a person: the ability to obtain an image that corresponds to a sensation, the ability to isolate it from a whole mass of images, and the ability to give it a certain icon. Therefore, the basis of all assimilation, and therefore of learning, must be considered form, number and word. Knowledge can only be considered acquired when it has been cast into a form, is clearly distinguished from other knowledge and has received a name. Based on these considerations he builds a consistent methodology for elementary teaching. Learning words, form and number leads to the need to practice the native language, penmanship, drawing and arithmetic. Pestalozzi gives a very detailed methodology for these objects, based on the principle of clarity. The basic methodological techniques for teaching literacy, numeracy and writing, as set out by Pestalozzi, have now become the property of all sound pedagogy.

So, the main properties of any object are number, shape and name. Therefore, the task of initial training will be to develop three fundamental abilities:

• “distinguish objects by shape and imagine their essence”,
• “to distinguish objects by quantity and clearly imagine them in the form of one or many objects”,
• “the received ideas about the number and shape ... of an object are strengthened with the help of language and retained in memory.”

Thus, from these three elementary points, the natural first necessary abilities of a person are formed - “counting, measuring and speaking.” Pestalozzi believes that bringing these abilities to their maximum in a natural way includes knowledge of nature. Moreover, in a broad sense, by number we mean a quantitative, formalized study of the world and its laws, by form - observation of the properties of phenomena and objects, and by word - the ability to systematize and describe the object of study. It follows from this that initial cognition must be associated with the simplest characteristics - word, form and number. Pestalozzi considers them the most natural, recognized by nature itself as the starting points of all learning. In order to organize the child’s observations and help him understand what is in front of him, the teacher must first of all draw his attention to how much various items before him, what is their shape and outline and what they are called, that is, how they can be expressed by words in language.

Along with defining the three main directions of knowledge of the world, Pestalozzi introduces concepts about the simplest elements of these directions. The simplest element of a number is one, as the simplest and most visual number, which a child encounters first in his life and realizes first. The simplest element of form is a line, as the first element of the “alphabet of observation”. The simplest element of a word is sound. Initially, children are taught to recognize precisely these very simple elements in order to then, using the principle of gradually adding information, move on to the next steps.

When teaching children a language, Pestalozzi suggests starting with the simplest thing - sound. In his opinion, a child’s acquaintance with sounds should be completed even before he is shown letters and the first reading exercises begin with him. Only after the child has fully mastered all the sounds that make up speech, after he learns to put sounds into syllables and achieves the necessary fluency in this, after he has firmly memorized the learned forms, can we begin introduce him to letters, reading and writing. It is precisely this approach (the transition from the letter-subjunctive method to the sound method), according to Pestalozzi, that makes it easier for children to write correctly.

Learning to read also begins with the elementary - with a vowel letter. The child must know and pronounce each letter perfectly, after which children must also gradually, one by one, be shown consonant letters in combination with vowels, which makes it possible to teach children to read in different ways. After achieving a certain fluency in putting together syllables, you can move on to reading words, again from simpler ones to more complex ones, and only after that the child can be given the first book to read.

Simultaneously with learning to read, vocabulary should be expanded, that is, names should be taught. Thus, with the advent of new words, along with children acquiring reading and writing skills, they expand their knowledge of the world in which they live. The parallelism of these processes is the key, firstly, to the success of learning and, secondly, to children’s interest in classes.

Another important aspect of language learning, in addition to the ability to read and replenish a child’s vocabulary and conceptual stock, is learning to speak, that is, the ability to express judgments out loud and on paper. Here, again, we need to start with the simplest thing - with the selection of a definition for the subject (phrase as the second element of speech). The child must, from his own life experience, choose a definition of an object known to him, using his senses. After this, the child learns to classify words according to their properties and divide them into groups. And gradually, step by step, he learns to formulate the relationship between concepts, their relationship with time, number, circumstances, the essence of the subject; set tasks, determine relationships of obligation, opportunities, intentions, goals.

Teaching children the second main direction of knowledge - the art of determining form, that is, measuring - is structured in a similar way. First, children are shown the simplest element of a form - a straight line, then they gradually complicate the form, introducing children to the simplest shapes: angles, arcs; classify figures by type and location on the plane. Next, the child learns to name the forms he sees, determine the shape of a specific object, the degree of its deviation from correct form. It should be noted here that Pestalozzi was the first teacher in history to introduce the rudiments of geometry in primary school.

It is absolutely necessary, according to Pestalozzi, in parallel with teaching children to recognize and determine the shape of objects, to teach them to depict objects on paper, that is, to draw.

The art of drawing lies in the ability to imagine, by observing an object, its outlines and its distinctive features using lines and to reproduce it correctly.

Here Pestalozzi also applies the method of elementary education, teaching children first to draw lines, then figures, and only gradually the observation of geometric lines becomes unnecessary and the ability to draw remains.

Pestalozzi also includes teaching children to write in the area of ​​study of form. Here he makes a valuable proposal that has not lost its meaning to this day - that children first exercise their hands in writing the elements of letters and only then move on to writing the letters themselves and the words consisting of them. Before children learn to use a pen, a Swiss educator recommends that they write with a slate pencil on slate boards, which makes it easier for them to move between lines and geometric shapes to letters, which, of course, can also be initially considered as a collection of lines and arcs.

The third elementary means of cognition is number. As has already been said, the simplest element of counting is one, and the simplest element of the method of quantitative cognition of the world is the “more/less” ratio. A child, as Pestalozzi rightly points out, receives the concept of number on the basis of his personal experience, but this concept should be streamlined and clarified. By placing unit as the basis of calculation, he, by adding and subtracting it, strives to create in the child’s mind the correct concepts of number, considering it as the relationship between set and unit. According to Pestalozzi, it is possible to introduce written notations for numbers and arithmetic operations only after schoolchildren have mastered mental counting skills. He pointed out that arithmetic operations should be preceded by oral calculation exercises, which must be carried out in a strict methodological sequence.

Thus, teaching children to understand nature is based on three elephants - reading, counting and observation. At the same time, it is necessary to understand that only parallel pursuits of these three types of activities can lead to the harmonious development of the individual. They are not separated from each other, but are interconnected and interpenetrating. Indeed, learning to write, for example, is possible only on the basis of the child’s ability to both read and draw; Initial training in arithmetic and geometry is possible only on a verbal basis, using the already developed ability to express judgments.

The presented methodology allows children to slowly but surely form the correct concepts. With its help, you can achieve a dual goal - equipping students with knowledge and developing their thinking ability, nurturing independent thinking.

Visibility of training

In direct connection with the elementary nature of teaching is its visibility, to which Pestalozzi assigned a significant role. During the time of Pestalozzi, the principle of mechanical learning and application of rules was everywhere in effect in schools. The great Swiss categorically objected to thoughtless memorization of information, building his teaching system on the basis of the widespread use of visual methods.

Based on the principle of sensory perception formulated by him as the only foundation of human knowledge, Pestalozzi defines visual learning as the most important method of intellectual education. Pestalozzi divides visual learning into “general visual learning” and “special visual learning of the relationships between measures and numbers.” General visual learning means the ability to define in precise terms the range of objects accessible to the child’s observation. Special visual teaching refers to the presentation of educational subjects in accordance with persistent and multifaceted exercises in free observation and determination of the relationships between the size and number of objects and their components.

Putting forward the current and present position that education and training must be carried out in an inextricable connection, Pestalozzi gives him the following justification. He argues that human nature is a single whole and, therefore, the development of any one force of human nature cannot but affect the development of all the others. Another argument illustrating the unity of elementary physical, mental and moral education is that they are not only jointly aimed at achieving the ultimate goal of education - the formation of a harmonious independent personality - but are also built on the same foundations and follow the same principles. the same way. form, develop and set in motion the potential internal forces of his consciousness, which, as Pestalozzi believes, are characterized by a desire for development. Over time, the first shoots of morality are transformed in the child into higher moral feelings, which he already consciously shows, not only to his mother, but also to other people.

In the moral formation of a child’s personality, Pestalozzi assigns a special role to “internal contemplation” (analogous to observation in intellectual education), that is, the perception by the child’s consciousness of his own impressions related to the state of the soul. However, in order for these experiences to be integrated by the child, it is necessary to initially develop in him the correct ideas and concepts, and only then provide him with the opportunity to express independent judgments. When developing a child’s moral powers, there must necessarily be an awakening of his natural spiritual powers and a manifestation of his initiative. The entire system of moral education, Pestalozzi believes, should be built on the foundations of developing the activity of the child himself.

Pestalozzi strongly condemns those of his contemporaries who widely use verbose sermons for moral education and force children to memorize religious texts they do not understand. In his “Letter to a Friend about his Stay in Stanza,” Pestalozzi writes:

Before talking about any virtue, I evoked a living sense of it in the children... Just as with elementary intellectual education, the sensory perception of an object must be present in the child’s mind before he learns to pronounce the word denoting this object, so too exactly, the feelings that form ... the basis ... of moral concepts in the child’s soul must already be present in it, before the words denoting them are put into his mouth.

How a person is raised from a moral point of view, the teacher claims, should be judged by his actual actions, and not by his ability to utter pompous phrases.

Applying the theory of elementary education to the issues of moral education, Pestalozzi considers the first thing necessary to develop high moral feelings in children in order to further form moral principles, develop moral skills in them through direct participation in good and useful deeds, and, finally, determine moral consciousness young man. Moral education of children, Pestalozzi believes, can be effective if it is purposeful and carried out systematically. He sees the basis for the moral development of a child in the family.

Pestalozzi calls the simplest element of morality the feeling of love. In the article “What does the method give to the mind and heart” he says:

Just as the mind expresses itself mainly in number, form and word, and all means of forming the mind come from these three foundations of its development, so the heart finds expression mainly in love, and all means of educating the heart must necessarily come from this primordial power .

The elementary feeling of love, initially directed at the mother, with the help of the art of education, Pestalozzi proposes to gradually extend to an increasingly wider range of people. Starting from his love for what is close, the child, slowly but steadily moving towards something more distant, begins to have love for his people and, finally, for all of humanity.

The teacher closely connects moral education with religious education, for Christianity, as the embodiment of high moral principles, greatly contributes to the ennoblement of human nature. However, according to I. Niederer, one of Pestalozzi’s closest associates, the latter did not specifically instill in his students the Christian faith; Moreover, he rejected the dogmatic side of the doctrine, but highly valued the moral foundations of Christianity and widely used religious principles and moral concepts in the moral education of the child.

Pestalozzi considers “exercises in virtue” to be one of the most effective means of elementary moral education, that is, the participation of children in good and useful deeds, often requiring volitional efforts from children. He sees it as necessary to begin such exercises in the family, and then systematically continue them in educational institutions.

By integrating various pedagogical methods aimed at the mental, physical and moral development of the child, Pestalozzi strives to achieve interpenetration and fusion of education and learning. According to him,

As in a good family, every word... spoken for the purpose of education contains training, and training is at the same time education. One goes directly into the other...

Pestalozzi about the organization of training

In the teacher's works one can also come across a number of interesting thoughts about the organizational side of learning.

One of Pestalozzi's important requirements for raising children is that it begins from early childhood. “The hour of a child’s birth is the first hour of his education,” he states in the book “How Gertrude Teaches Her Children.” The role of family education does not diminish even after the child enters school. Pestalozzi expresses the idea that family and school education should be carried out in close interaction. At the same time, he emphasizes that public institutions, no matter how good they are, will not be able to take on the entire task of education without the participation of parents. However, at the same time, Pestalozzi notes that the combination of family and school education can be successful only when there is complete agreement between them, when both of them are built on a nature-appropriate basis.

Pestalozzi attaches great importance to the creation of a “spirit of family life” in the school, such a setting of teaching and upbringing, when the school becomes for the child like a big family, where informal closeness and mutual disposition arise between teachers and students. It is necessary to arrange the matter in such a way that the child can trust the teacher and see his sincere goodwill towards him. In a New Year's speech in 1811, Pestalozzi tells the staff of the Yverdon Institute:

You, as educators, should have such a loving attitude towards them<детям>to attract children's hearts... I would like you to fully possess this heartfelt loving attitude towards children, which will increase your educational capabilities.

At the same time, according to Pestalozzi, perhaps individual actions, albeit filled with high feelings, are not so important, but the teacher’s daily and hourly warm attitude towards each child and the children’s team as a whole. No wonder the slogan on the banner of the Yverdon Institute was the inscription “In love there is virtue.”

Pestalozzi passionately rebelled against the ostentatious order and regime that prevailed in many educational institutions of his time, based on drill and violence. At the same time, he considered it absolutely necessary to observe a certain reasonable order in the process of education, clearly conveyed to the consciousness of children. In Pestalozzi's Diary of the Raising of His Son, he writes:

... there should be no ambiguity about what is prohibited... We should not imagine that the child himself can guess what may be harmful and what is important to us.

At the same time, Pestalozzi is confident that a public educational institution cannot exist without children observing proper discipline. Pestalozzi proposes to maintain this order mainly by means of moral persuasion. Every prohibition and every punishment, he believes, must be clearly explained not only according to its meaning, but also according to its sources, from the point of view of the benefit of the child himself or the team.

In condition educational institution type of boarding school, Pestalozzi did not find it possible to do without corporal punishment, however, they were used not for disciplinary offenses, but for cruelty, rudeness and other manifestations of the worst qualities. Only a person whom he knows for sure treats him well can apply such punishment to a child; a person who, in a sense, replaces mother and father and enjoys the child’s trust. Moreover, corporal punishment should not be intended to cause real pain to the child, much less torture, but only to demonstrate to him the extreme degree of indignation and indignation of the teacher. The act of forgiveness also plays an important role, which must follow some time after the punishment. With such a setup of the educational process, according to Pestalozzi, it is possible to achieve not only the child’s obedience, but also to maintain his spiritual comfort and develop a sense of justice.

One should not shy away from joint games between teachers and students. In his “Memorandum of the Seminary in the Canton of Vaud,” Pestalozzi writes:

...Teachers and students mix during games; teachers participate in these games not only as supervisors, they themselves play along with the children. Thanks to the fact that teachers are able to maintain a cheerful, joyful and relaxed mood, signifying the innocence and holy happiness of children, ... they, of course, can fulfill their functions with redoubled force, ... not only notice and stop what is really bad, but at the same time remove children from the environment ... examples of bad behavior, expel all evil from their minds.

Thus, Pestalozzi emphasizes the leading role of upbringing in the formation of a healthy human personality, and says that the guiding role of the organized upbringing process should be combined with the use of the principle “life will teach.” Pestalozzi declares the great role played by the personality of the teacher in the upbringing and teaching of children. In addition to the indispensable love for children, without which Pestalozzi does not consider it possible to achieve success in education, he highly values ​​in a teacher such qualities as resourcefulness, cheerfulness, spontaneity, modesty, and moral purity. These qualities can help him win the sympathy of children, enter into close communication with them, and enjoy well-deserved love and respect from them. And only under this condition will the teacher be able to serve a worthy example for children.

Giving great importance the educational impact of the teacher’s personality on children, Pestalozzi demands that he invariably show pedagogical tact in all his activities. Pestalozzi did not allow the teacher to have “favorites,” since everyone else reacted painfully to a biased attitude towards individual children. “Where there are favorites, love ceases” - this was Pestalozzi’s motto.

He views the activities of teachers and educators as creative activities and strongly objects to the use of routine and monotonous techniques in them. Pestalozzi bitterly sneered at those teachers who know how to utter loud phrases about education, but in reality are unable to diversify the methods of their work, to show any originality, ingenuity, or creative initiative in it.

Pestalozzi attached great importance to the active development of the child’s independence, and in all three areas of nature-appropriate education - mental, physical and moral. Awakened naturally, this independence of love, thinking and physical movements is a manifestation of the totality of all human inclinations. Each step in education should, according to Pestalozzi, be aimed, among other things, at developing activity, the desire for self-education and self-education. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the individual characteristics of the child, in such a way as to bring to perfection those mental, physical and moral qualities that are inherent in him by nature itself.

In organizational terms, to take such account of individual characteristics, Pestalozzi suggests, among other things, dividing students according to their level of knowledge of the subject into several groups. In this way, it is possible to develop specific educational interests of students and contribute to their successful advancement in those branches of knowledge for which they show a special inclination.

Pestalozzi was a proponent of coeducational education for boys and girls. In the novel Lingard and Gertrude he said:

Boys, if raised alone, become too rude, and girls become withdrawn and too dreamy. After all, often the most well-mannered children come from families where brother and sister live side by side for a long time.

The Swiss teacher also considered it advisable to involve older and more prepared children in teaching their comrades. He views mutual teaching as a method designed to develop the knowledge of both one and the other student.

Thus, the main task of the school according to Pestalozzi is, first of all, to develop, on a nature-appropriate basis, the mental, physical and moral inclinations of the student being educated, to give children a clear and logical picture of the world in all its manifestations, to form useful skills and the ability to draw conclusions, and only then arm him with a set of specific information. The use of this method, the great humanist teacher believes, will allow the school to cultivate a harmoniously developed personality, ready for all the vicissitudes of future life.

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

Pestalozzi Johann Heinrich (1746/1827) - Swiss educator. He laid the foundation for the theory of primary education, in which he linked pedagogy with psychology, and teaching with upbringing and development. He proposed a number of new ideas in the theory of combining training and productive work. He owns the following works: “Lingard and Gertrude” (1781/1887), “How Gertrude teaches her children” (1801), “Swan Song” (1826), etc.

Guryeva T.N. New literary dictionary / T.N. Guryev. – Rostov n/d, Phoenix, 2009, p. 217.

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) - the largest Swiss democratic teacher, theorist of the public school, who had a huge influence on the development of pedagogical theory and school practice in many countries of the world.

Influenced by the ideas of Rousseau, he devoted his life to finding ways to improve the situation of the people. He placed his main hopes on the properly organized upbringing and education of children, on the unity of mental, moral and physical education in combination with preparation for work and participation in it. Pestalozzi, a humanist teacher, was true to his democratic ideals. He degenerated his pedagogical theory from the main goal of education, which he saw in the development of all the natural abilities of the child, taking into account his individual characteristics and age. At the same time, education should mold the child into not just a harmoniously developed individual, but a hard worker - a member of the human community.

Developing the problems of didactics, Pestalozzi put forward the fruitful idea of ​​elementary education, according to which children, in the process of learning and upbringing, should acquire the basic elements of knowledge, morality, and working methods. It can be said that Pestalozzi thereby made an attempt to pose and solve one of the most important didactic problems - the problem of selecting the content of education, which should gradually become more complex, corresponding to the stages of individual and age-related development of children.

Pestalozzi's great merit lies in the development of the principle of visual teaching, in the desire to connect sensory perception with the development of thinking. Pestalozzi considered the most important task of education to be the development of logical thinking, cognitive abilities, the ability to logically and consistently express one’s thoughts and formulate concepts. Education, according to Pestalozzi, must necessarily act in a developmental manner and encourage children to be creative.

Based on his ideas of developmental education and elementary education, Pestalozzi initiated the scientific development of methods for the initial teaching of the native language, arithmetic, geometry, and geography.

Biographical information quoted from the publication: Reader on the history of foreign pedagogy. Comp. A.I. Piskunov. 2nd ed. reworked M., 1981, p. 275.

Other biographical materials:

Kodzhaspirova G. M., Kodzhaspirov A. Yu. Swiss democratic teacher ( Kodzhaspirova G. M., Kodzhaspirov A. Yu. Pedagogical dictionary: For students. higher and Wednesday ped. textbook establishments. - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2001).

Essays:

Samtliche Werke.hrsg. von A. Buchenau, e. Spranger, n. Stettbacher, e. Dejung, Bd 1-17 - A, 18-21, 23, 25, V. - Lpz. - Zurich, 1927-73;

Samtliche Briefe, hrsg. von Pestalozzianum und von der Zentralbibliothek in Zurich, Bd 1-13, Zurich, 1946-71; in Russian lane - Selected pedagogical works. Ed. n. f. Shchabaeva. [Prep. text, introductory article and approx. V. A. Rotenberg], vol. 1-3, M., 1961 - 65.

Ausgewählte Werke, hrsg. v. O. Boldeman, Bd. 1–3. V., 1962–64;

Literature:

Krupskaya N.K., Pestalozzi, Pedagogical Works, vol. 1, M., 1957;

Krupskaya N.K., To the chapter on Pestalozzi, ibid., vol. 4, M., 1959;

Pinkevich A. P., Medynsky E. N., I. G. Pestalozzi. His life, teaching and influence on Russian pedagogy, M., 1927;

Pinkevich A.P., I.G. Pestalozzi, M., 1933;

Rotenberg V. A., Pedagogical activity of I. G. Pestalozzi, "Soviet pedagogy", 1952, No. 3;

Rotenberg V.A., Pestalozzi on combining training with labor and preparation for activity in industry, ibid., 1962, No. 7.

Zilberfarb I. I., Outstanding Helvetian democrat Pestalozzi, in the collection: From history social movements and international relations, M., 1957.