Socialization-individuals. Socialization of the individual in social science Personality as a unique social system

The state plays a certain role in the socialization of individuals of any age. Using social science knowledge and the facts of public life, indicate any three tasks that a democratic state can solve as an agent of socialization, and the corresponding means that it uses.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

Socialization goes through stages coinciding with the so-called life cycles. They mark the most important milestones in a person’s biography, which may well serve as qualitative stages in the formation of a social “I”: admission to a university (student life cycle), marriage (family life cycle), choice of profession and employment (labor cycle), military service (army cycle), retirement (pension cycle).

Life cycles are associated with a change in social roles, with the acquisition of a new status, the rejection of old habits, environment, friendly contacts, a change in the usual way of life.

Each time, moving to a new step, entering a new cycle, a person has to retrain a lot. This process falls into two stages, which have received special names in sociology.

Weaning from old values, norms, roles and rules of behavior is called desocialization.

The principle according to which the development of the personality throughout life is ascending and is based on the consolidation of the past, is immutable. But the personality traits that were formed earlier are not unshakable. Resocialization is the assimilation of new values, roles, skills instead of the old, insufficiently assimilated or outdated ones. Resocialization covers many activities - from classes to improve reading skills to professional retraining of workers. Psychotherapy is also one of the forms of resocialization. Under its influence, people try to understand their conflicts and change their behavior based on this understanding.

Desocialization and resocialization are two sides of the same process, namely adult, or continued, socialization.

In childhood and adolescence, while an individual is brought up in a family and school, as a rule, no drastic changes occur in his life, except for the divorce or death of his parents, the continuation of education in a boarding school or orphanage. His socialization proceeds smoothly and represents the accumulation of new knowledge, values, norms. The first major change occurs only with the entry into adulthood.

Although the process of socialization continues at this age, it changes significantly. Now desocialization and resocialization come to the fore. Sometimes a person finds himself in such extreme conditions, where desocialization goes so deep that it turns into the destruction of the moral foundations of the individual, and resocialization is superficial. It is not able to restore all the wealth of lost values, norms and roles.

(V. V. Kasyanov, V. N. Nechipurenko, S. I. Samygin)

What are the two sides of adult socialization considered by the authors? How did they define the essence of each side?

Explanation.

The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1. Two sides of adult socialization are indicated:

Desocialization;

Resocialization.

2. The essence of each of them is determined.

Desocialization - weaning from old values, norms, roles and rules of behavior;

Resocialization is the assimilation of new values, roles, skills instead of the old, insufficiently assimilated or outdated ones.

What, according to the authors, is the difference between the course of the process of socialization in children and adults (using the text, give one difference)? Invoking social science knowledge, point out the other two differences.

Explanation.

A correct answer must include the following elements:

1) The difference between the course of the socialization process in children and adults, given in the text:

In childhood, no drastic changes occur, the process of socialization proceeds smoothly, the accumulation of new values ​​of norms takes place, with the entry into adulthood, the processes of desocialization and resocialization come to the fore.

2) Other differences in the course of the socialization process in children and adults:

In childhood, agents of primary socialization (parents, relatives, peers) have a greater influence, with the entry into adulthood, agents of secondary socialization (public organizations, official institutions) have a stronger influence.

In childhood, socialization occurs through the game, with growing up, other activities come to the fore.

Other differences may be given.

Subject area: Social relations. Socialization

Source: USE in social studies 05/05/2014. Early wave. Option 1.

On the example of any three milestones in the biography of a person indicated by the authors, show the change in the statuses (rights and duties, lifestyle) of a person. Please enter a name first life cycle(milestones in the biography), then give a description of how the rights and obligations, the way of life change.

Explanation.

The correct answer should illustrate the change in statuses using the example of three milestones in the biography.

1. The cycle of student life. A person masters the role of a student. He can count on receiving a quality education, access to libraries, scientific institutions, if required, qualified assistance and guidance from teachers. Obliged to attend classes, take exams and tests, practice, defend diploma and term papers. A student can live in a hostel, often earns extra money, is independent, tries not to be economically dependent on his parents.

2. The cycle of family life. Mastering the role of husband or wife, father or mother. Can count on understanding emotional support from the second half, respect from children. Responsible for the upbringing of children, the material maintenance of the family. Spouses usually try to live in a separate apartment, a person appreciates stability, tries to find a permanent source of income, the time for role-playing experiments is a thing of the past, he spends his free time with his family.

3. Labor cycle. Takes on the role of an employee. He is integrated into the hierarchy at work, can be both a subordinate and a boss, is obliged to fulfill his labor function, observe discipline, safety precautions, receives a salary for his work. An employee tries to prove himself from the best side, often counts on a career, standard of living, costs usually depend on the employee's income.

A correct example may contain other examples.

Subject area: Social relations. Socialization

1. Personality as a unique social system

The concept, types and main stages of socialization.

Factors and institutions of socialization.

1. Personality as a unique social system

Any problem studied by sociology turns out to be associated with the problem of personality. But it is necessary to clarify the differences in terms: man, individual, personality.

When the term "human" is used, it is usually meant to include all people: men and women, old people and children, blacks, yellows and whites; indicates the qualitative differences between people and animals (possession of consciousness, speech, joint work, etc.), but says nothing about socially determined differences between people themselves.

The concept of "individual" denotes a separate representative of the human race, which has peculiar psychophysiological characteristics - a certain temperament, character, specificity of memory, feelings, abilities, etc.

When the concept of “personality” is used, it refers to the social qualities and characteristics of an individual that are formed, developed and realized only in coexistence with other people, such as, for example, dignity, courage, kindness or cowardice, suspicion, envy, etc. P.

The social qualities of a person are a set of socio-psychological properties and personality traits that are in a certain way interconnected and determined by the type of social interaction with other people in specific socio-historical conditions and circumstances.

The most significant social qualities of a person are as follows;

1) Self-consciousness - the selection by the individual of himself from the surrounding social environment, awareness of himself as "I", opposing "others" and at the same time inextricably linked with them.

2) Self-esteem - an assessment by a person of himself, his capabilities, abilities, place occupied among other people.

3) Activity - the ability of a person to independently, energetically and intensively carry out socially significant actions.

4) Interests - a constant incentive mechanism for the cognition and activity of the individual. 5) Orientation - a set of stable motives that guide the activity of the individual, regardless of the social situations in which he is to achieve a well-defined goal.

6) Beliefs - personal socio-psychological needs, which are based on certain ideas, ideas, principles that determine a person's attitude to reality and encourage him to act in accordance with them.

7) Attitude - a social characteristic of a person, expressing her readiness for vigorous activity in a certain sphere of social reality that is important for her - in economic, political, scientific, etc.

A personality has a certain socio-psychological structure, the elements of which are its own properties:

1) Integrity - interdependence, subordination of social qualities, which in their totality make up its complex internal structure.

2) Open social system, which is in constant interaction with the surrounding social environment.

3) A dynamically changing system that is in the process of change and development.

4) Self-cognizing system, i.e. constantly knowing itself in comparison with other people and their actions.

5) A self-regulating system that organizes itself, self-actualizes, designs and implements its own life project.

6) A self-developing system - not only adapting to the external world, but also changing it with its purposeful activity, and at the same time changing itself.

Sociologists distinguish several types of personality:

1) A modal personality is the most common type of personality that embodies the average generally accepted features characteristic of a particular culture that dominates a given society (community).

2) The basic personality is the type of personality that is normative for a given type of culture or social stratum.

3) Marginal personality type - a person placed by the conditions of society or life circumstances on the verge of two cultures or life stereotypes.

4) A reactive personality is a type of personality that, in its main features and actions, depends on a variety of external influences, of which it is unable to single out the most significant, important ones; as a result, most often "goes with the flow", and blames the circumstances for his failures.

5) A proactive personality is a type of personality that is able to actively implement its own line of behavior in any circumstances, to be less influenced by others, and more to influence them and external circumstances, achieving their own goals in life. Such a person is usually not afraid of difficulties, he is ready to overcome them.

6) Criminal personality - a type of person, widespread in crisis and transitional states of the development of society, who, as a rule, knows the basic norms, laws, rules of behavior, but violates them for the sake of personal selfish aspirations.

- a complex organism in which all cells are closely interconnected and the efficiency of the life of society as a whole depends on the activity of each of them.

In the body, new cells take the place of obsolete cells. So in society, new people are born every second who still do not know anything; no rules, no norms, no laws by which their parents live. They need to be taught everything so that they become independent members of society, active participants in its life, capable of educating a new generation.

The process of assimilation by an individual of social norms, cultural values ​​and patterns of behavior of society to which it belongs is called socialization.

It includes the transfer and mastery of knowledge, skills, values, ideals, norms and rules of social behavior.

In sociological science, it is customary to single out two main types of socialization:

1. primary - assimilation of norms and values ​​by the child;
2. secondary - the assimilation of new norms and values ​​by an adult.

Socialization is a set of agents and institutions that shape, guide, stimulate, limit the development of a person.

Socialization agents are specific people responsible for teaching cultural norms and social values. Institutes of socialization — institutions that influence the process of socialization and guide it.

Depending on the type of socialization, primary and secondary agents and institutions of socialization are considered.

Primary socialization agents- parents, brothers, sisters, grandparents, other relatives, friends, teachers, leaders of youth groups. The term "primary" refers to everything that makes up the immediate and immediate environment of a person.

Agents of secondary socialization- representatives of the administration of the school, university, enterprise, army, police, church, employees of funds mass media. The term “secondary” describes those who are in the second echelon of influence, having a less important impact on a person.

Primary institutions of socialization is a family, school, peer group, etc. Secondary institutions is the state, its organs, universities, church, mass media, etc.

The process of socialization consists of several stages, stages

1. Stage of adaptation (birth - adolescence). At this stage, there is an uncritical assimilation of social experience, the main mechanism of socialization is imitation.
2. The emergence of a desire to distinguish oneself from others is the stage of identification.
3. The stage of integration, introduction into the life of society, which can take place either successfully or unsuccessfully.
4. labor stage. At this stage, the reproduction of social experience, the impact on the environment.
5. Post-labor stage (old age). This stage is characterized by the transfer of social experience to new generations.

Stages of the process of socialization of the individual according to Erickson (1902-1976):

Infancy stage(from 0 to 1.5 years). At this stage, the main role in the life of the child is played by the mother, she feeds, cares, gives affection, care, as a result, the child develops a basic trust in the world. The dynamics of trust development depends on the mother. The lack of emotional communication with the baby leads to a sharp slowdown in the psychological development of the child.

early childhood stage(from 1.5 to 4 years). This stage is associated with the formation of autonomy and independence. The child begins to walk, learns to control himself when performing acts of defecation. Society and parents accustom the child to neatness, tidiness, begin to shame for "wet pants".

childhood stage(from 4 to 6 years). At this stage, the child is already convinced that he is a person, since he runs, knows how to speak, expands the area of ​​​​mastering the world, the child develops a sense of enterprise, initiative, which is laid down in the game. The game is important for the child, as it forms the initiative, develops creativity. The child masters relations between people through play, develops his psychological capabilities: will, memory, thinking, etc. But if parents strongly suppress the child, do not pay attention to his games, then this negatively affects the development of the child, contributes to the consolidation of passivity, insecurity, and guilt.

Early childhood stage(from 6 to 11 years). At this stage, the child has already exhausted the possibilities of development within the family, and now the school introduces the child to knowledge about future activities, transfers the technological ethos of culture. If a child successfully masters knowledge, he believes in himself, is confident, calm. Failures at school lead to a feeling of inferiority, disbelief in one's own strength, despair, loss of interest in learning.

Adolescence stage(from 11 to 20 years). At this stage, the central form of ego identity (personal "I") is formed. Rapid physiological growth, puberty, concern about how he looks in front of others, the need to find his professional vocation, abilities, skills - these are the questions that confront a teenager, and these are already society's demands for self-determination.

Youth stage(from 21 to 25 years). At this stage, the search for a life partner, cooperation with people, strengthening ties with everything becomes relevant for a person, a person is not afraid of depersonalization, he mixes his identity with other people, there is a feeling of closeness, unity, cooperation, intimacy with certain people. However, if the diffusion of identity passes to this age, the person becomes isolated, isolation and loneliness are fixed.

maturity stage(from 25 to 55/60 years). At this stage, the development of identity goes on throughout life, the influence of other people, especially children, is felt: they confirm that they need you. At the same stage, a person invests himself in good, beloved work, caring for children, and is satisfied with his life.

stage of old age(over 55/60 years). At this stage, a complete form of ego-identity is created on the basis of the entire path of personality development, a person rethinks his whole life, realizes his “I” in spiritual reflections about the years he has lived. A person “accepts” himself and his life, realizes the need for a logical conclusion of life, shows wisdom, a detached interest in life in the face of death.

At each stage of socialization, a person is influenced by certain factors, the ratio of which at different stages is different.

In general, there are five factors that influence the process of socialization:

1. biological heredity;
2. physical environment;
3. culture, social environment;
4. group experience;
5. individual experience.

Each person's biological heritage provides the "raw materials" that are then transformed into personality characteristics in a variety of ways. It is thanks to the biological factor that there is a huge variety of individuals.

The process of socialization covers all strata of society. Within its framework assimilation of new norms and values ​​to replace the old ones called resocialization, and the loss of social behavior skills by a person - desocialization. Deviation in socialization is called deviation.

The model of socialization is determined by, what society committed to values what type of social interactions should be played. Socialization is organized in such a way as to ensure the reproduction of the properties of the social system. If the main value of society is the freedom of the individual, it creates such conditions. When a person is provided with certain conditions, she learns independence and responsibility, respect for her own and others' individuality. This manifests itself everywhere: in the family, at school, at a university, at work, etc. Moreover, this liberal model of socialization presupposes an organic unity of freedom and responsibility.

The process of socialization of a person continues throughout his life, but it proceeds especially intensively in young years. It is then that the foundation of the spiritual development of the individual is created, which increases the importance of the quality of education, increases responsibility. society that sets a certain system of coordinates of the educational process, which includes formation of a worldview based on universal and spiritual values; development of creative thinking; development of high social activity, purposefulness, needs and ability to work in a team, striving for something new and the ability to find the best solution to life's problems in non-standard situations; the need for constant self-education and formation professional qualities; the ability to make decisions independently; respect for laws, moral values; social responsibility, civil courage, develops a sense of inner freedom and dignity; education of national self-consciousness of the Russian citizen.

Socialization is a complex, vital process. It largely depends on him how the individual will be able to realize his inclinations, abilities, take place as.

Lecture number 9-10.

Theme: Socialization. social mobility .

Interview.

What is stratification?

Describe the main types of stratification systems.

3. What is the role of the middle social stratum in the life of society?

4. What are the features of the stratification system in Russia?

5. Test task in two versions.

Plan of presentation of new material.

The concept of socialization. Scientific approaches to socialization.

factors of socialization. Political socialization

Stages of socialization. agents of socialization.

Classification and parameters of social mobility.

Social mobility in the USSR.

Channels of vertical mobility.

Migration.

1. The concept of socialization. Scientific approaches to socialization.

Society, as a rule, is intolerant of social deviations. Not only criminals, but also talented children, outstanding, and therefore not like others, the creators often feel like "black sheep".

Norm and deviation - the basic phenomena of social life. They require a conscious and purposeful attitude towards oneself, the development of social programs to strengthen the normative order and support for positive forms of social deviation, as well as an uncompromising struggle against negative deviation. This work is not limited to crime prevention, although it includes it.

It is much deeper, it is carried out at the level of formation of the basic values ​​of consciousness and has its roots in early childhood, the beginning of personality formation, and continues throughout the conscious life of the individual. After all, as Democritus rightly noted, a dishonest person is known not only from what he does, but also from what he desires. Wisdom presupposes three abilities: to make excellent decisions, to speak without error, and to do what is right.

Social norms establish boundaries, conditions, permissible forms and nature of the behavior of individuals, goals and ways to achieve them. The assimilation of the social norms of society, the development of an individual attitude towards them and the most important life guidelines and programs of action occur in the process of socialization.

Socialization- this is the formation and development of the social qualities of an individual on the basis of his assimilation of a system of knowledge, norms, values, experiencesthat of previous generations of people.

Socialization is a specifically human process; animals do not go through it.

All living beings try to adapt to the environment. Their actions are programmed by nature itself. The more complex the organization of a species, the more effort it has to spend on the process of adaptation: in insects this period lasts from several hours to several days, in birds - several months, in bears, wolves, monkeys- up to several years. But the most difficult thing in this regard is for a person: the period of his preparation for an independent life in modern society takes at least 15-17 years. An ant, bee or beaver, performing construction operations, realize only the genetic program of their species. A person also has a genetic program, since he- a biosocial being, but its implementation is socially conditioned, cultural in nature. Human needs are focused not only on the maintenance of physical existence, but also on the spiritual

development, communication, recognition, creative self-expression. Having realized the need, a person is able to make purposeful efforts to satisfy it, not depending on random factors. It actively changes its habitat, both natural and social. In order for him to become a full member of society, adaptation is not enough.

In the course of socialization, a person masters the social experience of previous generations, reveals his special, unique qualities, abilities, talent, develops his will. With effort, an individual can change not only his spiritual world, but also his physical and psychological qualities:

A frail teenager, thanks to sports, can become strong and dexterous, acquire an athletic physique;

The quick-tempered, having resorted to auto-training, will learn composure and balance, the cowardly will temper the will.

Successful socialization also requires biological inclinations - developed brain, healthy psyche . The biological heredity and physical characteristics of an individual can also predetermine his social fate: a beautiful appearance allows the actor to have the role of a hero; short stature will not allow you to become a successful basketball player; the presence of serious speech defects makes the profession of an actor, teacher or television announcer unattainable.

Many factors influence the formation of a personality, its specific “image”. These include:

biogenetic inclinations (temperament, type of nervous system, development of auditory and visual receptors, general health);

social factors (influence of the environment, specific living conditions, social institutions, values ​​accepted in society, norms, traditions, customs);

psychosocial qualities , formed in the process of individual socialization: spiritual needs, value orientations and a system of motives, a way to correlate one's interests with public ones, the level of claims, beliefs, worldview.

Society sets a certain perspective for the development of the individual, creating a model of certain preferred qualities. So, in modern society, moral, progressive, educated, creative thinking people. And, for example, in a traditional society, obedience, patience, loyalty to traditions, and the ability to please the master are more valued.

The "personality model" is formed on the basis of the demand for certain of its characteristics. Their awareness can be the basis of educational

programs, is spreading in society in the form of stereotypes. They can relate to both spiritual characteristics and physical health, attitude to work, appearance. Until recently, it was believed that thinness and pallor indicate a disease of the body, and fullness and blush all over the cheek were a sign of health. In peasant families, such strong and large women have always been valued, who could not only reproduce healthy offspring, but also perform any physical work. Stereotypes of female beauty have changed under the influence of social changes. Our contemporaries, familiar with medical science, know that fullness often indicates a metabolic disorder, and a bright blush can be a symptom of several diseases at once.- from elevated body temperature to severe heart disease and tuberculosis. In addition, dynamic city life has formed completely different stereotypes of female beauty. Today, an athletic physique is “in fashion”, but even more demand- on intelligence, education, moral qualities and spirituality.

The social environment that influences the formation of personality is conditionally divided into primary (near) and secondary (far).

Primary environment includes people significant for a person: parents and other family members, educators, everyone who belongs to his immediate environment. It is these people who in the first years of a person's life act for him as "plenipotentiary representatives" of society. Later, the circle of these people will expand (teachers, coaches, friends, classmates). They are called agents of primary socialization. They interact directly with the individual, largely determining the range of his interests and needs, moral qualities, views and value orientations, exercising primary social control.

Primary socialization occurs most intensively in the first half of a person's life, although it also matters later.

On the contrary, secondary socialization characteristic of the second half of life, when matured people acquire social statuses, consciously and independently enter into relationships with important social organizations - the state, the labor collective, the army, political parties and public organizations, the media. During this period, changes in a person's outlook on life, in assessments are inevitable. He has to work on his character, improve his general development and professional qualifications. This process in sociology has another name -resocialization . Those people and organizations that at this time influence the socialization of the individual and exercise social control are calledagents of secondary socialization , and their actions formsecondary environment of socialization . They perceive a person impersonally, primarily as a bearer of a formal social status, one of many. Their influence can be not only direct, but also indirect: we "get acquainted" with the state more often indirectly - through the perception and assessment of the general political situation in the country, watching the activities of deputies on TV, studying the laws. And we directly interact with it, taking part in political elections, referendums, working in government bodies.

Thus, society makes great efforts to socialize the individual. However, this process is not always subject to planning and control: human life is impossible and does not need to be organized in detail. As P. Berger noted, “in most cases, we ourselves want exactly what society expects from us. We want to submit to the rules. For most of us, the yoke of society does not rub too much on the neck...” 1 .

At the same time, noting the enormous role of social attitudes and norms in the individual development of the individual, another well-known sociologist, Z. Bauman, emphasizes: “The conclusion is incorrect that the development of the individual through training and education is a passive process and that this work is done by others, and only they, stuffing the child with all sorts of prescriptions and - with the help of a stick or a carrot - persuading and forcing them to obediently follow them. In fact, everything is different. The child as a person is formed in interaction with the environment. Activity and initiative are characteristic of both sides of this interaction” 2 . The individual and society are mutually "interested" in each other. The process of socialization is equally important for each of them. For personalities it is determined by the fact that the individual becomes a full member of society. It depends on the success of socialization how much a person will be able to realize himself, how well his life will develop socially. After all, even Democritus warned that "the beautiful is comprehended at the cost of great effort, the bad is assimilated by itself, without difficulty."

The value of the socialization process for society is that it contributes to the self-reproduction of social life: new generations learn the values, traditions, experience, knowledge of the previous ones, thereby ensuring their continuity.

The individual is interested and actively relates to the world around him and his own personality. He does not stop the complex mental work for a minute, being engaged in self-education, self-education, self-development. Over time, he will gain his own experience of participating in social relationships. He notices everything that is happening around him, he encounters unforeseen circumstances, unplanned agents of socialization, situations that require non-standard solutions, the finding of which is not provided for either by school or even university curricula. This is also socialization, but it is called unintentional carried out spontaneously, unintentionally . Functions of a socialization agent life itself is here. There may be no semantic unity between these two types of socialization: in the course of deliberate socialization, one thing is instilled in a person, and real life teaches another. In this case, a person will be guided by personal experience to a greater extent, he may be critical of the proposals of society. In society, a person can also not only develop, but also be destroyed, for example, under the influence of alcohol or drugs. This process has been named desocialization , it is a deeper and more distant consequence of deviation.

2. Factors of socialization. Political socialization

Many well-known scientists have tried to describe the mechanism of socialization within the framework of various sciences. Austrian psychoanalyst 3. Freud He believed that a child becomes independent when he learns to coordinate his own desires, coming from the sphere of the unconscious, with the norms of society. In this case, the suppression of instincts causes painful phenomena. French psychologist J. Piaget identified several stages in the development of a child's ability to comprehend the world, which is important for determining his place in this world. At each stage, the child acquires relevant knowledge and skills.

Based on the ideas of J. Piaget, the American psychologist J. Adelson identified trends in the development of political thinking among young people in England, the USA and Germany aged 11 to 18 years. He came to the conclusion that the years of adolescence were marked by the rapid growth of political knowledge, including the assimilation of traditional political views and settings. In the middle of adolescence, an autonomous system of ethical and political principles is formed in an individual. With age, the influence of principles on political judgments is strengthened, which are stronger than momentary interest.

The deepest theoretical explanation of the process of socialization was made by American scientists. J. G. Mead(1863-1931) and C. Cooley (1864-1929).

mid paid special attention to socialization in childhood. According to him, it goes through three stages :

1) preparatory (aged one to three years), during which the child imitates the behavior of adults without any understanding;

2) game (at three to five years old), when children begin to understand the behavior of those whom they portray, but the performance of the role is still unstable;

3) stage of self-identification (seven to eight years), when role behavior becomes conscious and purposeful and the ability to understand the roles of other people is manifested. The child learns to behave in society by observing how elders behave and trying to imitate them. Imitation of the behavior of adults is the content of many games of young children: children play what they see, bringing into it an element of their individual fantasy.

If you look closely at the course of the game, you can understand a lot of the real life of the families to which these children belong: the occupation of the parents, their attitude to work and life in general, their relationship with each other, the division of labor adopted in this family, etc. .

However, the well-known social psychologist A. Bandura emphasizes that observing the world of adults does not always make a child want to imitate. The child chooses a role model independently enough. This may not necessarily be one of the parents, but simply a significant adult, whom the child would like to be like, who makes him feel sympathy and desire to identify with him.

Growing up, the individual gets acquainted with the views, attitudes of other people (they are called "those ») and accepts them . Me is acceptancegeneralized other - common in society, typical attitudes. But at the same time, a person retains his own individuality (denoted as « I »), freedom of choice. Each person is a unique ratio / andMe . Such forms of human interaction as language, play and competition play an important role in its formation.

Cooley assigned a primary role in shaping the personality to its social environment, which acts as its "mirror self" helps to navigate in their actions, affects the formation of self-esteem. A person learns cultural norms, social values, turns them into his own, internal rules of behavior. Some elements of our daily behavior become so habitual that we form strong associative ties. - conditioned reflexes .

The formation of conditioned reflexes is one of the channels of socialization. In this case, one speaks of learning by forming a conditioned reflex. In a well-bred member of modern society, there is, for example, a conditioned reflex associated with washing hands before eating. If he sits at the table without washing his hands, he will feel some discomfort and perhaps even a decrease in appetite.

The conditioned reflex is also involved in the formation of food preferences typical for a given society. For example, we are disgusted at the thought of eating the meat of snakes, lizards, frogs, live worms, and so on. However, there are societies where all this is the usual diet, and something is even a delicacy. Our food preferences are also not absolute, although they seem familiar and natural to us. Thus, society forms individuals, and they, in turn, construct society.

Each of us, says Cooley, experienced a feeling of embarrassment when, after some ridiculous incident, he imagined how he looked in the eyes of others. We work better, feeling the support of our superiors, we feel like intellectuals, if others are convinced of this. And the preconceived opinion of the environment can undermine a person's self-confidence.

A person is connected with society by hundreds of threads, he feels the need for recognition, respect, belonging to the number of "his own".

The influence of the social environment is so great that purposeful socialization can even compensate for the consequences of severe natural ailments of individuals.

This conclusion was confirmed in the course of a unique study of the process of socialization of deaf-blind-mute children, carried out in the Zagorsk boarding school by the efforts of domestic scientists of various professions: physicians, teachers, psychologists, sociologists, and philosophers. As a result of a specially organized and long-term socializing influence on those who had severe

children's ailments, they all received education, mastered professions, were engaged in creativity and succeeded in it.

At the same time, if a child in childhood for some reason finds himself isolated from people, he loses contact with society (his “mirror”, using Cooley’s terminology), and this will have irreversible consequences for him. The longer the period of isolation, the more likely it is that the individual will never be able to become a person.

In ancient legends, many stories about people fed and raised by animals have been preserved. What is true in them, what is fiction - now it is no longer possible to know. The founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus, fed by a she-wolf, a Lithuanian boy who grew up in a bear's lair, as E. Condillac told about back in 1754, could well exist. There are several cases of feeding human cubs by wolves, bears, baboons. In 1920, in India, Dr. Sing found two girls in a wolf den, along with a brood of wolf cubs, who looked to be seven or eight and two years old. In the city apartment of the doctor, the children behaved at first like wild animals: they ran only on all fours, and only at night. During the day they slept, huddled in a corner and tightly pressed against each other. The younger girl soon died, having learned nothing, the eldest lived for about 10 years. She was taught to walk for two years. It took four years to learn six words. Only ten years later, her vocabulary expanded to a hundred words. By this time, the girl fell in love with the company of people, ceased to be afraid of bright light, learned to eat with her hands and drink from a cup. At the age of seventeen, she did not differ in the level of her development from a three-year-old child..

. Let us recall in this connection what happened to Victor, the little savage who became famous thanks to the film of François Truffaut. Victor, a 12-year-old boy, lived alone in a forest in the south of France at the end ofXIX century. When the hunters found him, he behaved like a small animal. He ran on all fours and had very sharp hearing and eyesight. He could not speak, but only made inarticulate sounds. Experts considered him mentally retarded. A young doctor named Itard did not agree with this diagnosis and decided to take care of the boy himself. He called him Victor and set himself the goal of educating him and making him a full-fledged person, able to live in society and communicate. Despite his best efforts, five years later, Itard had to admit that he had failed. Victor, of course, mastered the basics of the language, but he never learned to behave like a member of society. At the first opportunity, he returned to his old habits, which once helped him survive in the forest. He liked to eat with his hands, hated wearing clothes, and preferred to move around on all fours. In short, Victor was accustomed to life in the forest and adapted to it. The lives of other children like Victor, "wolf children", "gazelle children" or little Tarzan, who was found in the forests of El Salvador at the age of five, were less tragic. It seems that the earlier such children are taken into care, the greater the opportunity to retrain them and introduce them to this society. It follows from this that the role of primary socialization is very great and its absence at the appropriate age cannot, or almost cannot, be compensated later.

Thus, the interaction of an individual with other people is an indispensable condition for the development of his personality..

Not only society, but also political institutions throughout the history of their existence have a great influence on the formation of personality. This process has been especially active sinceXIXcentury, when universal suffrage was introduced in developed European countries, which led to political activity of different social strata, groups, political parties, unprecedented in the history of human society, finding new forms of political participation. Since then, state, public organizations, political parties have been actively involved in shaping the worldview of individuals, updating political values ​​for them. These efforts are urgently needed, since all institutions of the democratic political system function on the basis of broad political participation of the masses. The formation of political views and orientation of the individual in the process of interaction with the institutions of the political system of society received title political socialization.

Political socialization - the process of assimilation by the individual of the political orientations, attitudes and models of political behavior developed by society, ensuring his adequate participation in the political life of society.

There are usually three levels of political socialization:

social(society as a whole), in which the political formation of the individual is influenced by socio-economic and political relations, political culture;

socio-psychological on which political values ​​are transmitted to the individual by the social groups to which he belongs;

personal level where motives, value orientations, attitudes of the individual act as socializing factors.

A different degree of balance between the interests of the authorities and the individual in their dialogue was embodied in the types of political socialization that were historically formed in different civilizations.

1) Harmonic the type of political socialization is inherent in a culturally homogeneous environment with mature democratic traditions and civil society, providing a respectful dialogue between the individual and the authorities. This is how British-American culture can be characterized.

2) Pluralistic the type of political socialization prevails in the countries of Western Europe. It is formed in the conditions of the existence of multiple heterogeneous subcultures, the basis for the unification of which are liberal values ​​(freedom, private property, individualism, human rights, democracy, pluralism, etc.).

3) conflict the type of political socialization is common in non-Western societies, which are characterized by a high level of poverty for the majority of the population, adherence to parochial values ​​of the clan, clan, tribe, which makes it difficult to reach agreement between the bearers of different values ​​and the authorities. These societies have a high degree of political violence due to significant cultural heterogeneity.

4) Hegemonic the type of political socialization involves the entry of a person into politics by recognizing the values ​​of a certain class (for example, the bourgeoisie or the proletariat), a certain religion (for example, Islam) or political ideology (it can be communism, fascism or liberalism). This approach is inherent in closed political systems. This is how political socialization was carried out in Russia in Soviet time, in other socialist states, some countries of Asia and Africa.

The course of political socialization is greatly influenced by both political and non-political institutions and factors: the family, the school, the media, the church, the nature and type of government, the political regime, political parties.

The significance of political socialization is determined by the fact thatviable functioning of the political system of society, preserve the integrity of the social organism involves the constant reproduction and development of the political culture of society, which is carried out through the assimilation and acceptance by individuals of norms, values themes and models of political behavior adopted in a given society.

3. Stages of personality socialization

Socialization of an individual with different degree intensity lengthcherishes throughout his life. Conditionally in this processbut to single out the stages of childhood, youth, maturity and old age.

. The intensity of socialization in different periods of an individual's life

Childhood - age period, the main content of which is identification and individualization - correlation of oneself with other people, identification of similarities and differences, awareness and development of individual traits. At this stage, the leading role belongs to the immediate environment of a person - his relatives, friends, teachers. In dealing with them, a person acquires those social characteristics that make him similar to other people: skills, basic knowledge, the simplest rules of behavior, language.

J. G. Mead believed that the most important form of socialization in childhood is the game (first - individual, then - collective) and competition. During the game, children imitate the behavior of adults, "try on" their statuses and roles. So the child learns and learns to respect norms (rules of the game) and gets acquainted with sanctions (praise or punishment) more easily.

The duration of childhood with the development of human society increases. (If in a traditional society (beforeXVIIIc.) at the age of seven or eight, a child from the lower classes was already involved in active labor activity, then in modern society at this age children are still studying in the lower grades.) This trend is associated with an increase in the level of development of society, a change in views on human nature, their humanization, the growth of life expectancy in general and the period of study in particular.

It is in childhood that the most important personality traits are laid, intelligence is formed, emotions, memory, thinking develop, talents and abilities are revealed, so it is important to give each child enough attention and time.

In childhood, political socialization also begins. The child receives the first information about the world of politics already at preschool age through the family, the media, and the immediate environment. Already at school age, the formation of the attitude of the individual to politics takes place.

The school complements and deepens the political information received by the child in the family. At school, political socialization is carried out both through the teaching of social disciplines and through institutional influence, since the role of the school in the process of political socialization of the individual is largely determined by the nature of the political system of society. The American school, for example, educates young Americans in the spirit of American exceptionalism. At the same time, American students from childhood are guided by the achievement of agreement in the sphere of internal political relations. In China, from an early age, children at school are brought up in the spirit of unconditional respect for political leaders, the official ideology. The formation of such political attitudes is extremely important for the reproduction of the political culture dominant in society..

Youth conditionally divided into three periods:

1. teenage (13-16 years old),

2. youth (16-20 years old),

3. youth (20-28 years old). At this stage there is an active formation of individuality. In this process, not only the efforts of socialization agents are important, but also a person's own work on himself: self-education, self-education, self-education. The agents of socialization try to give socially acceptable forms to this activity of the individual.

The period of adolescence is considered especially difficult for the individual. . At this time, physiological changes occur (puberty sets in), psychological (a young person can become unbalanced, aggressive, withdrawn), moral principles and worldview are formed. personality. The development of adolescents occurs through overcoming children's attitudes, habits, accompanied by contradictions, increased criticality and susceptibility to the opinion of "significant others". Lack of life experience, emotional instability, the desire to be one's own among peers sometimes give rise to such negative phenomena as youth crime, drug addiction and other forms of deviant behavior.

In youth, a person's life is full important events: he completes his studies at high school, chooses a profession, deepens his knowledge in a higher educational institution or starts working, gaining economic independence from his parents. At this age, marriages are actively concluded, spouses take responsibility for the future fate of the family and children. At the same age, a person becomes an active subject of social and political life.

Entry of the individual into mature age opens up new frontiers for him. The lower limit of this period of socialization is determined individually, and the upper limit is determined by law as the time of retirement. This is a period of active labor activity of a person, when he has the opportunity to reveal his creative, creative potential, achieve professional skills, improve his social status, and with it - well-being. In adulthood, the individual realizes a large number of social roles, his activities are versatile and intense: people are consciously engaged in political activities: they work in political parties, public organizations, are elected to government bodies.

With age, the ability to adapt to social changes decreases. The older the person, the more conservative he is. However, socialization continues old age: people master new statuses and roles for themselves - grandparents, pensioners, people with disabilities. Often this process is painful: after completing an active labor activity, a person feels lonely, unnecessary, he loses his relatives and friends. But this is not always the case. Society and the state are able to mitigate the pain of this process. In all countries, older people are respected for their wisdom, experience, and the ability to make informed decisions. In a traditional society, they can also hold key government positions, perform the functions of mentors for young people and keepers of traditions for life. They are approached in difficult situations, their word is often decisive. Due to the decline in the birth rate recorded by sociologists and demographers in the United States, European countries and Russia, the proportion of older people among the population of these countries is growing. Modern society also takes care of the elderly. States based on humanistic and democratic values, developed economically, adopt a variety of social programs aimed at improving their level and quality of life.

The transition from one stage of socialization to another is often accompanied by a crisis (the so-called crisis of socialization). Usually they talk about the crisis of adolescence and adulthood. But it should be remembered that a person at any age can find himself in a difficult life situation, for example, getting into a new social group - the army, a study group, a labor collective.

The causes of the crisis are both personal and social. Personal can be caused by features of character traits, temperament (low adaptability, increased anxiety), insufficient role training, life failures. The crisis is especially difficult if personal causes intensify social : problems of the development of society, the growth of crime, the fall of family values, the destruction of social relationships between people, moral norms.

To overcome the crisis of socialization, mutual efforts of the individual and society are necessary: ​​the resolution of problems as they arise, the development of strong-willed qualities, and professional improvement. But sometimes more decisive measures are needed: a change in the social environment (place of work, study), resocialization. The state should promote the development of sports, tourism, create conditions for creativity.

5. SOCIAL MOBILITY

People are in constant motion, and society is in development. The unexpected rise of a person or his sudden fall is a favorite plot of folk tales: a cunning beggar suddenly becomes rich, a poor prince becomes a king, and the industrious Cinderella marries a prince, thereby increasing her status and prestige. People move from city to village, from country to country. They move up and down the social hierarchy, sometimes in groups, less often in whole strata and classes. Such movements within the framework of the stratification of society are called social mobility.

Parameters of social mobility

The totality of social movements of people in society, that is, changes in their status, is called social mobility.

This topic has interested humanity for a long time. Human history is made up not so much of individual destinies as of the movement of large social groups. The landed aristocracy is being replaced by the financial bourgeoisie, low-skilled professions are being squeezed out of modern production by representatives of the so-called white-collar workers - engineers, programmers, operators of robotic complexes. Wars and revolutions reshaped the social structure of society, raising some to the top of the pyramid and lowering others. Similar changes took place in Russian society after the October Revolution of 1917. They are still taking place today, when the business elite is replacing the party elite.

Social mobility is measured using two main indicators.

Mobility distance is the number of steps that individuals managed to climb or had to descend.

The normal distance is considered to be moving one or two steps up or down. Abnormal distance - an unexpected rise to the top of the social ladder or fall to its bottom.

Under mobility refers to the number of individuals who have moved up the social ladder in a vertical direction over a certain period of time.

If the volume is calculated by the number of moved individuals, then it is called absolute, and if the ratio of this number to the entire population, then relative and is indicated as a percentage.

The total volume or scale of mobility, determines the number of movements across all strata together, but differentiated- by individual strata, layers, classes.

The change in mobility for individual layers is described by two indicators.

The first – is the coefficient of mobility of exit from the social stratum. It shows, for example, how many sons of skilled workers became intellectuals or peasants.

Second is the coefficient of mobility of entry into the social stratum, it indicates from which layers, for example, the layer of intellectuals is replenished. It reveals the social origin of people.

Classification of social mobility

Between ascent and descent there is a certain asymmetry: everyone wants to go up and no one wants to go down the social ladder. As a rule, ascent is a phenomenon voluntary and the descent forced. Studies show that those with higher status prefer high positions for themselves and their children, but those with lower status want the same for themselves and their children. And so it turns out in human society: everyone is striving upward and no one is downward.

Exist two main types social mobility

- intergenerational and

intragenerational

two main types

1 vertical and

2 horizontal.

They, in turn, break down into subspecies and subtypes which are closely related to each other.

Intergenerationalmobility assumes that children achieve a higher social position or fall to a lower level than their parents.

Example: A miner's son becomes an engineer.

Intergenerational mobility is a change in position sons relative to their fathers. For example, the son of a plumber becomes president of a corporation, or vice versa.

Intergenerational mobility is the most important form of social mobility. Its scale tells the extent to which, in a given society, inequality passes from one generation to the next. If intergenerational mobility is low, then this means that inequality has taken root in this society, and a person’s chances to change his fate do not depend on himself, but are predetermined by birth. In the case of significant intergenerational mobility, people achieve a new status through their own efforts, regardless of the circumstances that accompanied their birth.

Intragenerational mobility takes place where the same individual, beyond comparison with the father, changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise it is called social career .

Example: a turner becomes an engineer, and then a shop manager, plant director, minister of the engineering industry.

The first type of mobility refers to long-term, and the second - to short-term processes. In the first case, sociologists are more interested in interclass mobility, and in the second - the movement from the sphere of physical labor to the sphere of mental .

Vertical mobility implies a movement from one stratum (estate, class, caste) to another.

Depending on the direction of movement, there are

1. upward mobility (social rise, upward movement) and

2. downward mobility (social descent, downward movement).

Promotion is an example of upward mobility, dismissal, demolition is an example of downward mobility. Vertical mobility is a change by a person during his life of a high status to a low one, or vice versa. The movement of a person from the status of a plumber to the position of president of a corporation, as well as the reverse movement, is an example of vertical mobility.

Horizontal mobility implies the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level.

An example is the movement from an Orthodox to a Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another, from one family (parental) to another (one's own, newly formed), from one profession to another. Such movements occur without a noticeable change in social position in the vertical direction.

Horizontal mobility implies a change by a person during his life of one status to another, which are approximately equivalent. Let's say he was first a plumber and then became a carpenter.

A form of horizontal mobility is geographical mobility . It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another with maintaining the previous status. An example is international and interregional tourism, moving from a city to a village and back, moving from one enterprise to another.

If a change of status is added to a change of place, then geographic mobility becomes migration. If a villager comes to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographic mobility. If he moved to the city for permanent residence and found a job here, then this is migration. He changed his profession.

It is possible to propose a classification of social mobility according to other criteria. So, for example, one distinguishes individual mobility, when moving down, up or horizontally occurs in each person independently of others, and group mobility, when movements take place collectively, for example, after a social revolution, the old class cedes its dominant positions to the new class.

Group mobility occurs where and when the social significance of an entire class, estate, caste, rank, or category rises or falls. The October Revolution led to the rise of the Bolsheviks, who previously did not have a recognized high position. Brahmins became the highest caste as a result of a long and stubborn struggle, and earlier they were on an equal footing with the kshatriyas. In ancient Greece, after the adoption of the constitution, most people were freed from slavery and climbed the social ladder, and many of their former masters went down.

The transition from a hereditary aristocracy to a plutocracy (an aristocracy based on the principles of wealth) had the same consequences. In 212 AD e. almost the entire population of the Roman Empire received the status of Roman citizenship. Thanks to this, huge masses of people who were previously considered to be deprived of their rights have increased their social status. The invasion of the barbarians (Huns, Lobards, Goths) disrupted the social stratification of the Roman Empire: one by one, the old aristocratic families disappeared, and they were replaced by new ones. Foreigners founded new dynasties and new nobility.

As P. Sorokin showed on a huge historical material, The reasons for group mobility were the following factors:

social revolutions;

Foreign interventions, invasions;

Interstate wars;

Civil wars;

military coups;

Change of political regimes;

Replacing the old constitution with a new one;

Peasant uprisings;

Internecine struggle of aristocratic families;

Creation of an empire.

Group mobility takes place where there is a change in the very system of stratification.

To the factors of individual mobility, i.e., the reasons that allow one person to achieve greater success than another, sociologists include:

The social status of the family;

The level of education received;

Nationality;

Physical and mental abilities, external data;

Getting an upbringing;

Place of residence;

Profitable marriage.

Individual and group mobility are connected in a certain way with assigned and achieved status. Do you think individual mobility is more in line with assigned or achieved status? (Try to figure it out on your own, and if that doesn't work, read the chapter to the end.)

These are the main types, types and forms (there are no significant differences between these terms) of social mobility. In addition to them, sometimes they distinguishorganized mobility, when the movement of a person or entire groups up, down or horizontally is controlled by the state:

a) with the consent of the people themselves,

b) without their consent.

To voluntary organized mobility should be referred to as socialist organization set, public calls for Komsomol construction projects, etc.

To involuntary organized mobility can be attributed repatriation (resettlement) of small peoples and dispossession during the years of Stalinism.

It is necessary to distinguish from organized mobility structural mobility . It is caused by changes in the structure of the national economy and occurs against the will and consciousness of individual individuals. For example, the disappearance or reduction of industries or professions leads to the displacement of large masses of people. In the 50-70s. in the USSR, small villages were reduced and enlarged.

The main and non-main types (types, forms) of mobility differ as follows.

Of course, the intensity or volume of mobility is not the same everywhere.

The main views characterize all or most societies in any historical era.

Non-principal types of mobility are inherent in some types of society and are not inherent in others.(Find specific examples to prove this thesis.)

The main and non-main types of mobility exist in three main areas of society - economic, political, professional. Mobility practically does not occur (with rare exceptions) in the demographic sphere and is quite limited in the religious sphere. Indeed, it is impossible to migrate from a man to a woman, and moving from childhood to adolescence is not mobility. Voluntary and forced change of religion in human history occurred repeatedly. Suffice it to recall the baptism of Rus', the conversion of the Indians to the Christian faith after the discovery of America by Columbus. However, such events rarely occur. They are of interest to historians rather than sociologists.

Mobile individuals begin socialization in one class and end in another. They are literally torn between dissimilar cultures and lifestyles. They do not know how to behave, dress, talk in terms of the standards of another class. Often adaptation to new conditions remains very superficial.

A typical example is Moliere's tradesman in the nobility. (Give other literary characters who would illustrate the superficial assimilation of manners when moving from one class, layer to another.)

In all industrialized countries, it is more difficult for women to advance than for men. If they raise their social status, they often do so through an advantageous marriage. Therefore, getting a job, they choose such professions where they are most likely to find a “suitable man”. What do you think this profession or place of work is? Give examples from life when marriage acted as a "social lift" for women of humble origin.

For 70 years, Soviet society was the most mobile society in the world along with America. A free education available to all strata offered everyone the same opportunities for advancement that existed only in the United States. Nowhere in the world did the elite of society literally form from all strata of society in a short time.

The most dynamic Soviet society was not only in terms of education and social mobility, but also in terms of industrial development. For many years, the USSR held the first place in terms of the pace of industrial progress. All these are signs of a modern industrial society, which have put forward the USSR, as Western sociologists have written, among the leading countries in the world for the entire period of human history.

Industrialization opens new vacancies in vertical mobility. The development of industry three centuries ago required the transformation of the peasantry into a proletariat. In the late stage of industrialization, the working class became the largest part of the employed population. The main factor of vertical mobility was the education system.

Industrialization is caused not only by interclass but also by intraclass changes. At the stage of conveyor or mass production at the beginning of the 20th century. few and unskilled workers remained the predominant group. Mechanization and then automation required an expansion of the ranks of skilled and highly skilled workers. In the 50s. 40% of the workers were little or unskilled. In 1966, 20% of them remained.

As unskilled labor declined, the need for employees, managers, and businessmen grew. The sphere of industrial and agricultural labor narrowed, while the sphere of service and management expanded. Social mobility is most clearly seen in the United States.

Dynamics of US Structural Mobility (1900-1980)

Social groups

1980

1900

Professionals and managers

22%

10%

Merchants, office workers, white-collar workers

30%

7,5%

Manual workers

32%

36%

blue collar service

13%

9%

Farmers and agricultural workers

3%

37,5%

In an industrial society, the structure of the national economy is determined by mobility. In other words, professional mobility in the USA, England, Russia or Japan does not depend on the individual characteristics of people, but on the structural features of the economy, the relationship of industries and the shifts taking place here. As we can see in the table, the number of people employed in agriculture in the USA decreased from 1900 to 1980 .10 times. The small farmers became the respectable petty bourgeois class, and the agricultural laborers were added to the ranks of the working class. The country of professionals and managers doubled over that period. The number of trade workers and clerks increased by 4 times.

Such transformations are characteristic of modern societies: from farm to factory in the early stages of industrialization and from factory to office in the later stages. Today, over 50% of the workforce is engaged in knowledge work, compared with 10-15% at the beginning of the century.

During this century, in the industrialized countries, vacancies in blue-collar jobs declined and jobs in managerial jobs expanded. But managerial vacancies were filled not by representatives of the workers, but by the middle class. However, the number of management jobs has grown faster than the number of middle class children able to fill them. Formed in the 50s. the vacuum was partly filled by working youth. This became possible due to the availability of higher education for ordinary Americans.

In the developed capitalist countries, industrialization was completed earlier than in the former socialist countries (USSR, East Germany, Hungary, Bulgaria, etc.). The lag could not but affect social mobility: in the capitalist countries, the proportion of leaders and intelligentsia who come from workers and peasants is 1/3, and in the former socialist countries - 3/4. In long industrialized countries such as England, the share of workers of peasant origin is very low, there are more so-called hereditary workers. On the contrary, in Eastern European countries it is very high and sometimes reaches 50%.

It is due to structural mobility that the two opposite poles of the professional pyramid turned out to be the least mobile. In the former socialist countries, the two layers were the most closed - top managers and auxiliary workers located at the bottom of the pyramid - the most prestigious and most non-prestigious types of activity. (Try to answer the question "Why?" for yourself.)

§ 3. Social mobility in the USSR

Soviet sociologists in the 60-80s. rather actively studied inter- and intra-generational, as well as inter- and intra-class mobility. The main classes were considered to be workers and peasants, and the intelligentsia was considered a class-like stratum.

The transition between these three groups is called interclass transfers, and the transition within a group is called intraclass. If a worker, peasant, or intellectual raised the level of education and moved from a low-skilled position to a medium- or highly-skilled position, while remaining a worker, peasant, or intellectual, then they made intra-class movements.

When the workers, the peasantry and the intelligentsia are replenished mainly by people from their own class, one speaks of the self-reproduction of the class or its reproduction on its own basis. According to large-scale studies (they cover the country, entire regions or cities) conducted in different years by F.F. Filippov, M.Kh. Titma, L.A. Gordon, V.N. account of people from this group. This proportion is even higher among the workers and peasants. The children of workers and peasants more often pass into the category of intellectuals than the children of intellectuals become peasants and workers.

The transition from peasants and workers to the intelligentsia is called vertical interclass mobility. In the 30-50s. she was especially active. The old intelligentsia was destroyed, its place was taken by immigrants from the workers and peasants. A new social community was formed - the "people's intelligentsia". The Bolshevik Party nominated ordinary people to leading positions in industry, agriculture, and government. They were called "red directors", "promoted". But in the 60s and 80s interclass mobility slowed down. A period of stabilization has begun.

Intra-class mobility came to the fore, it accounted for in the 70-80s. up to 80% of all movements. Intra-class mobility is also called the transition from simple to complex work. The worker remains a worker, but his qualifications are constantly growing.

Interesting data on the demographic composition of the migrants. Women are generally more mobile than men, young people are more mobile than older ones. But men are more likely to jump over several steps in their careers than women, who prefer to move gradually. From low-skilled workers to highly skilled and specialists, men advance several times more often than women. It is common for men to move from highly skilled workers to specialists.

A survey of people and an analysis of work books convince us that 90% of all movements occur in the first decade of employment, 9% - in the second, 1% - in the third. The initial period accounts for up to 95% of the so-called return movements, when people return to the position they left. Such data only confirm what everyone knows at the level of common sense: young people are looking for themselves, trying different professions, leaving and returning.

It turned out that a career in the 50s. started at the age of 18, in the 70s. - at 20 years old. Women, as a rule, start working later than men (due to the birth and upbringing of children). The most attractive group for young people is the intelligentsia. The general direction of intergenerational youth mobility is from the group of manual workers to the group of mental workers.

Staff turnover is a type of social mobility in industry. It is an unorganized transition of workers from one enterprise to another. It includes all dismissals of employees of their own free will, in connection with conscription, illness, retirement, as well as dismissals for violations of labor discipline. Staff turnover is a normal phenomenon for all industrialized countries. It becomes a problem only in two cases - when it is excessive (more than 25-30% per year) and when it is insufficient (less than 3% per year). In the first case, the personnel of the enterprise does not have time to form into a social community, they do not form their own norms, values, traditions. Economic losses are great: before dismissal, labor productivity usually drops, and considerable funds have to be spent on training and retraining of replacement personnel. In the second case, staff aging occurs, which negatively affects the psychological climate and relationships.

Until now, the main reasons for the dismissal of workers have been: the impossibility of obtaining an apartment at this enterprise; low salary; moving to a new place of residence; poor relationships with colleagues and superiors; unsatisfactory working and living conditions.

§ 6. Channels of vertical mobility

The most complete description of vertical mobility channels is given by P. Sorokin, only he calls them vertical circulation channels. P. Sorokin believes that since vertical mobility exists to some extent in any society, even in primitive ones, there are no impenetrable boundaries between strata. Between them there are various "holes", "elevators", "membranes" through which individuals move up and down.

Of particular interest are social institutions - the army, church, school, family, property, which are used as channels of social circulation.

Army functions as a channel in wartime. Large losses among the command staff lead to the filling of vacancies from lower ranks. Soldiers advance through talent and bravery. As they rise in rank, they use the power they gain as a channel for further advancement and the accumulation of wealth. They have the opportunity to seize trophies, take indemnities, take away slaves, surround themselves with pompous ceremonies, titles, and transfer their power by inheritance.

Of the 92 Roman emperors, 36 are known to have achieved this, starting from the lowest ranks. Of the 65 Byzantine emperors, 12 advanced through military careers. Napoleon and his entourage, marshals, generals and the kings of Europe appointed by him, came from commoners. Cromwell, Grant, Washington and thousands of other commanders have risen to the highest positions thanks to the army.

Church as a channel of social circulation moved a large number of people from the bottom to the top of society. Gebbon, Archbishop of Reims, was a former slave. Pope GregoryVII- A carpenter's son. P. Sorokin studied the biographies of 144 Roman Catholic popes and found that 28 came from the lower classes, and 27 from the middle strata. The institution of celibacy (celibacy), introduced inXIin. Pope GregoryVII, obligated the Catholic clergy not to have children. Thanks to this, after the death of officials, the vacant positions were filled with new people.

In addition to the upward movement, the church was a channel for the downward movement. Thousands of heretics, pagans, enemies of the church were brought to justice, ruined and destroyed. Among them were many kings, dukes, princes, lords, aristocrats and nobles of high ranks.

School. The institutions of education and upbringing, no matter what concrete form they take, have served in all ages as a powerful channel of social circulation. The USA and the USSR belong to societies where schools are available to all its members. In such a society, the "social elevator" moves from the very bottom, passes through all floors and reaches the very top.

The USA and the USSR are the most striking example of how one can achieve impressive success, become the great industrial powers of the world, adhering to opposite political and ideological values, but equally providing their citizens with equal opportunities to receive an education.

Great Britain represents the other pole, where privileged schools are available only to the upper strata of the population. The "social elevator" is short: it moves only along the upper floors of the social building.

An example of a "long elevator" is provided by Ancient China. During the era of Confucius, schools were open to all classes. Examinations were held every three years. The best students, regardless of their marital status, were selected and transferred to higher schools, and then to universities, from where they got to high government posts. Under the influence of Confucius, the government of the mandarins was reputed to be the government of Chinese intellectuals exalted through the school mechanism. The educational test fulfilled the role of universal suffrage.

Thus, the Chinese school constantly uplifted the common people and hindered the advancement of the upper classes if they did not meet the requirements. As a result, official duties in the government were carried out as they should, and positions were filled based on personal talents.

Large competitions for colleges and universities in many countries are explained by the fact that education is the fastest and most accessible channel of vertical mobility.

Property most clearly manifests itself in the form of accumulated wealth and money. They are one of the simplest and most effective ways of social promotion. In the XV-XVIII centuries. European society began to rule money. Achieved a high position only those who had money, and not a noble origin. The last periods of the history of Ancient Greece and Rome were the same.

P. Sorokin found that not all, but only some occupations and professions contribute to the accumulation of wealth. According to his calculations, in 29% of cases this allows the employment of a manufacturer, in 21% - a banker and a stockbroker, in 12% - a trader. The professions of artists, artists, inventors, statesmen, miners and some others do not provide such opportunities.

Family and marriage become channels of vertical circulation in the event that representatives of different social statuses enter the union. In European society, the marriage of a poor, but titled partner with a rich, but not noble, was common. As a result, both moved up the social ladder, getting what each wanted.

We find an example of downward mobility in antiquity. Under Roman law, a free woman who married a slave became a slave herself and lost the status of a free citizen.

Even primitive societies were interested in being ruled by the most gifted. But how to discover innate talents if there are no special methods and techniques? The ancients found a very simple way. Through empirical observation, they found that smart parents are more likely to have smart children, and vice versa. The thesis about the inheritance of the qualities of parents was firmly established in the minds of our ancestors. It is he who underlies the prohibition of inter-caste marriages. The lower the social position, the fewer virtues parents have and their children inherit. And vice versa. Thus, the institution of inheritance of the social status of parents by children gradually arose: a person born in a family with a high social rank also deserves a high rank.

The family has become the main mechanism of social selection, determination and inheritance of social status. The origin of a noble family does not automatically guarantee a good heredity and a decent education. Parents cared about the best possible upbringing of children; this became a mandatory norm for the aristocracy. In poor families, parents could not give proper education and upbringing. They could be given by noble families. Of these, the administrative elite was recruited. The family has become one of the institutions for the distribution of members of society by strata.

Ancient societies were more concerned about the stability of the family, because for them it was at the same time a school, a center for vocational training, and a production association, and much more. When the family began to lose its significance, the aura of holiness, marriages easily broke up, and divorces became an everyday event, society had to take on all these functions. Schools emerged outside the family, production outside the family, service outside the family.

Children remain in the family only while they are minors. In fact, they grow up outside the family. The meaning of purity of blood, inherited qualities has been lost. People are increasingly beginning to be judged not by their family origin, but by personal qualities.

GROUP CLOSURE.

The operation of channels of social mobility is hindered by social barriers and partitions, restrictions on access to another group, or the closure of a group. This phenomenon in science is called group closure, or social clause(social closure). M. Weber also wrote about him. This problem is actively discussed in modern sociology. The clause designates both the process and the result at the same time.

In a young, rapidly developing society, vertical mobility is very intensive. Russia of the era of Peter I and Soviet Russia in the 20-30s, Russia of the era of perestroika (90s of the XX century) are examples of such a society. People from the lower classes, through fortunate circumstances, hard work or resourcefulness, quickly move up. There were many vacancies for them here.

But now all the places are filled, the upward movement is slowing down. The new wealthy class is blocked from society by many social barriers. Getting into it is now incredibly difficult. social group closed.

In the US and Japan, only 7-10% of workers rise to the upper class. The children of businessmen, politicians, lawyers have 5-8 times more opportunities to follow their fathers than it could be if society were completely open. The higher the social class, the more difficult it is to penetrate it.

A good education is a prerequisite for obtaining a highly prestigious profession or position as a diplomat, minister, banker, professor, etc. It is the upper class that makes laws that are beneficial to him and disadvantageous to others.

The social organism today is becoming more immobile and closed to movement. The highest positions, which at an early stage of the development of society were elective, at later stages become hereditary. In ancient Egypt, only in the later stages did a strict custom of succession to official posts appear. In Sparta, in the earliest stages, foreigners were allowed to the rank of full-blooded citizens, later this became an exception. In 451 BC Pericles introduced a law according to which the privilege of free citizenship was granted only to those whose both parents were natives of Attica and free (full) citizens.

In Venice in 1296 the layer of the aristocracy was open, and from 1775, when the aristocracy lost its significance, the ranks become closed. At the end of the Roman Empire, all social strata and groups became completely closed. The rank of royal nobility in early feudal Europe was available to anyone, but subsequently becomes impenetrable to new people.

The tendency towards caste isolation began to appear among the bourgeoisie in England after the 15th century, and in France after XI 1 in.

Thus, the tendency towards social closeness is inherent in all societies. It characterizes the stabilization of social life, the transition from an early stage of development to a mature one, as well as an increase in the role of ascribed status and a decrease in the role of achieved status..

social closure upper class in Russia, it began to be observed already in 1993. Prior to that, that is, in the period from 1989 to 1992, the opportunities to enrich themselves and move upstairs were open to all Russians, although they were unequal. It is known that the capacity of the upper class is objectively limited and amounts to no more than 3-5% of the population. The ease with which large capitals were made in 1989-1992 has disappeared.

Today, access to the elite requires capital and capabilities that most people do not have. There is a kind of closure of the upper class, it passes laws that restrict access to its ranks, creates private schools that make it difficult to get the right education. The entertainment sphere of the elite is no longer available to other categories; it includes not only expensive salons, boarding houses, bars, clubs, but also holidays in world resorts.

At the same time, access to rural and urban middle class. The stratum of farmers is extremely small and does not exceed 1%. The middle urban strata have not yet formed. But their replenishment depends on how soon the "new Russians" and the country's leadership will pay for skilled mental labor not at the subsistence level, but at its market price.

In stable societies - the USA, England, France, Germany and some others - the upper class has long since become hereditary. The accumulation of wealth began within kindred clans, created by mutual marriages, several centuries ago.

In the United States, the upper class has maintained continuity through time since the 18th century. and goes back to the settlers from Northern Ireland.

The socialization of children in boarding schools and then practice in parenting fields, corporations and companies isolates the upper class from the rest of society. He forms his own system of values, social norms, etiquette, rules of conduct and lifestyle. T. Veblen called it demonstratively wasteful.

In modern Russian society, the upper class has a second feature - demonstrative luxury, but not the first - heredity. But it also begins to actively form due to the closure of the highest stratum.

§ 7. Migration

Vertical and horizontal mobility are influenced by gender, age, birth rate, death rate, population density. In general, young people and men are more mobile than older people and women. Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the effects of emigration than immigration. Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.

Professional mobility is typical for the young, economic mobility for adults, and political mobility for the elderly.

The birth rate is unevenly distributed across classes. The lower classes tend to have more children, while the upper classes tend to have fewer. There is a certain socio-demographic pattern: the higher a person climbs the social ladder, the fewer children he has.

But even if every son of a rich man follows in the footsteps of his father, voids are still formed on the upper steps of the social pyramid, which are filled by people from the lower classes. In no class do people plan for the exact number of children needed to replace parents. The number of vacancies and the number of applicants for the occupation of certain social positions in different classes is different.

Professionals (doctors, lawyers, etc.) and skilled employees do not have enough children to fill their jobs in the next generation. In contrast, farmers and agricultural workers, in the US, have 50% more children than is necessary for self-replacement. It is not difficult to calculate in which direction social mobility should proceed in modern society.

High and low birth rates in different classes have the same effect on vertical mobility as population density in different countries has on horizontal mobility. Strata can be overpopulated or underpopulated.

Migration - relocation of people from country to country, from region to region, from city to village (and vice versa), from city to city, from village to village. In other words, migration is territorial movements. They are seasonal, i.e. depending on the season (tourism, treatment, study, agricultural work), and pendulum - regular movement from this point and return to it. Essentially, both types of migration are temporary and return.

There are also immigration and emigration.

Migration- movement of population within one country.

Emigration- travel outside the country for permanent residence or long-term residence.

Immigration- entry into this country for permanent residence or long-term residence.

So, immigrants are moving in, and emigrants are moving out (voluntarily or involuntarily).

Emigration reduces the population. If the most talented and qualified residents leave, then not only the number, but also the qualitative composition of the population decreases. Immigration increases the population. The arrival of a highly skilled labor force in the country increases the qualitative composition of the population, while the arrival of a low-skilled labor force has the opposite effect.

Thanks to emigration and migration, new cities, countries and entire continents arose. It is known that in cities the birth rate is low and constantly decreasing. Consequently, all large cities, especially millionaire cities, have come into being through immigration.

After the discovery of America by Columbus, thousands and millions of immigrants moved here from Europe. North America, Latin America and Australia arose due to large migration processes. Siberia was mastered by migration.

AT 18th century two powerful streams of migration emanated from Europe - to America and to Russia. In Russia, the Volga region was especially actively populated. In 1762, the famous decree of Catherine II was published on the invitation of foreigners to civil service and settlement. Mostly Germans from Austria, Hungary, Switzerland, and Germany responded. The first flow of migrants were artisans, the second - peasants. They formed agricultural colonies in the steppe zone of Russia.

Emigration occurs where living conditions worsen and opportunities for upward mobility narrow. The peasants fled to Siberia and the Don, where the Cossacks had developed, because of the strengthening of serfdom. It was not aristocrats who left Europe, but social outsiders: ruined peasants, fugitives, unemployed, adventurers. In America, they built a new society and quickly moved up the social ladder.

Horizontal mobility in such cases acts as a means to solve the problems that arise in the field of vertical mobility. The fugitive serfs who founded the Don Cossacks became free and prosperous; they simultaneously raised their political and economic status, although the professional status could remain unchanged: the peasants continued to engage in arable farming on the new lands.

Migration does not always take massive forms. In calm times, it affects small groups or individuals. Their movement occurs, as a rule, spontaneously. Demographers identify two main flows of migration within one country: city-rural and city-city. It has been established that until the industrialization is completed in the country, people move mainly from the village to the city. Upon its completion, and this is typical for the United States and Western Europe, people move from the city to suburban areas and rural areas.

A strange regularity is revealed: the flows of migrants are directed to those places where social mobility is the highest. And one more thing: those who move from city to city arrange their lives easier and achieve greater success than those who move from village to city and vice versa. (Try to explain the reasons for this phenomenon yourself.)

Major migration phenomena include the so-called migrations of peoples. These are both ethnic and economic processes. The Great Invasion is called the invasion of barbarian tribes in the 5th century.

Key concepts: Immigration, Socialization self, migration, emigration, channels of vertical mobility, agents of socialization, political socialization, causes of group mobility.

Fixing the material:

1. What is socialization?

2. Name the main factors of socialization.

3. What is meant by political socialization?

4. Name the channels of vertical mobility.

5. List the stages of socialization of the individual.